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EDUCATION  DURING 
ADOLESCENCE 


EDUCATION  DURING 
ADOLESCENCE 

Based  Partly  on  G.   Stanley  HalVs 
Psychology  of  Adolescence 

BY  ^ 

RANSOM  A.  IVUCKIE,  M.A. 

SOMETIME  SCHOLAB  AND  JUNl'         jTJLLOW  IN   CLARK  UNIVEBSITT; 

FORMERLY   IN8TRUrT(Jl  ,    STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

FAIRMONT,    WEST    VIRGH^IA 

With  an  Introduction  by 
G.  STANLEY  HALL 

PRESIDENT   OF   CLARE   UNIVBRSITT 


NEW  YORK 
E.  p.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 

681  Fifth  Avenue 


CJopyright,  1920, 
By  E.  P.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 


All  Right*  Reterved 


.\::^: >••:.:  ••:..:: 


*     « 

€•••*••         • 

«  a       •    «,    •    •      • 


Printid  in  tht  United  States  of  America 


PEEFACE 


This  work  is  intended  as  a  general  introduc- 
tion to  secondary  education  based  largely  on 
the  psychology  of  adolescence.  Parts  of  some 
of  the  chapters  have  appeared  in  the  Educa- 
tional Review,  Education,  American  Education, 
the  High  School  Quarterly,  Oregon  Teacher's 
Monthly,  Northwest  Journal  of  Education,  and 
The  Historical  Outlook,  formerly  The  History 
Teacher's  Magazine.  Various  sections  have 
been  read  by  Dean  F.  E.  Bolton,  Mr.  0.  L. 
Luther,  Mr.  J.  W.  Graham,  Professor  L.  F. 
Jackson  and  Professor  G.  C.  Eobinson. 

It  seems  fitting  and  proper  that  I  should  base 
the  principles  of  secondary  education  partly 
on  the  work  of  the  famous  educator  and  dis- 
tinguished psychologist,  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Presi- 
dent of  Clark  University,  whose  wonderful 
power  and  influence  are  not  only  becoming 
more  fully  recognized  throughout  tliis  country, 


wi  PREFACE 

but  also  in  foreign  lands.  His  work  is  now 
being  **felt  in  every  department  of  the  school 
system,  and  in  all  fields  of  activity  in  which 
human  welfare  is  an  ideal,  both  at  home  and 
abroad.'' 

Dr.  Hall's  **distiQctively  original"  produc- 
tions, i.e.,  his  books  on  Adolescence,  published 
in  1904,  gave  him  recognition  in  England  and 
also  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Other  coun- 
tries soon  realized  the  importance  of  his  con- 
tributions. It  was  not  long  until  in  all  lands 
his  reputation  for  clear-sightedness  and  orig- 
inality of  a  conspicuous  order  was  firmly  estab- 
lished. The  wide-reaching  consequences  of  his 
work  made  hinn  at  once  a  focus  of  international 
interest  and  admiration. 

Before  his  books  *' Educational  Problems," 
consisting  of  two  ponderous  and  comprehensive 
yolumes,  appeared  in  1911,  although  he  was 
recognized  as  one  of  America's  leading  educa- 
tors, he  was  more  widely  known  as  a  psycholo- 
gist. His  new  books  seem  to  have  given  him 
a  slightly  different  and  perhaps  a  more  promin- 
ent position  in  the  pedagogical  world.  This 
is  true,  not  because  he  changed  or  modified  his 
original  position  but  rather  because  he  magni- 
fied or  rather  clarified  his  ideas  by  elaborating 


PREFACE  vu 

and  expounding  more  fully  his  pedagogic  doc- 
trines. 

Dr.  Hall  has  been  looking  forward  to  a  new 
order  of  things  in  education  and  he  has  been 
very  successful  in  his  interpretations.  Indeed, 
he  could  truly  be  called  a  pedagogical  prophet 
because  of  the  prophetic  way  in  which  he  has 
delineated  the  education  of  the  future.  The 
world  knows  prophets  by  their  fruits.  The 
fruits  of  Dr.  Hall's  work  can  be  seen  every- 
where. His  ideals  are  being  realized,  at  least 
in  some  respects,  in  that  his  **  pedagogy  of  the 
future"  is  now  being  put  into  actual  operation 
in  different  cities  and  localities  throughout  the 
United  States. 

It  is  encouraging  to  know  that  his  pedagogic 
philosophy  based  upon  genetic  psychology  and 
the  needs  of  society,  when  in  actual  practice, 
works  exceedingly  well ;  and  the  fact  that  many 
of  his  educational  ideals  have  been  put  into 
practice,  and  are  working  successfully,  makes 
more  and  more  evident  his  effectiveness  as  an 
educational  leader  and  reformer.  The  new 
education  as  expounded  by  Dr.  Hall  is  meeting 
the  approval  of  the  nation.  In  view  of  these 
facts  I  have  no  apology  for  basing  what  I  have 
to  say  partly  on  his  works.    In  Chapters  I, 


viii  PREFACE 

V,  VI,  I  have  quoted  freely  from  Adolescence, 
Educational  Problems,  Genetic  Philosophy  of 
Education,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  and  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  National  Education  Association. 


CONTENTS 


CBAPTHB  PAOB 

Introduction  by  G.  Stanley  Hall  xi 

I.    Education  dubinq  Adolescence      v.  .      1 

n.    Six- Year  High  School  Curricula  .  .19 

in.    Principle  of  Election  in  Education  .    39 

rV.    Changes   Proposed  in   Secondary  Ed** 

UCATION 59 

V.    Required  Subjects:  The  Social  Studies    79 

VI.    Required  Subjects:    (Continued)    Eng- 
lish      98 

Vn.    Required   Subjects:    (Continued)   His- 
tory     124 


INTEODUCTION 


This  work  is  the  product  of  long  thought  and 
extensive  reading  and  ought  to  be  in  the  hands 
of  every  high  school  principal  and  teacher  and 
of  every  superintendent.  It  represents  a  point 
of  view  which  though  not  entirely  new  shows 
much  original  and  careful  thought  and  repre- 
sents better  than  anything  I  know  the  general 
principles  of  what  I  believe  to  be  the  education 
of  the  near  future.  Many  of  us  have  long 
thought  that  the  training  both  of  children  and 
youth  should  be  essentially  based  upon  the 
fresh  study  of  the  pupil's  own  nature  and  needs, 
and  we  see  here  set  forth  in  concise  outline  the 
conclusions  which  many  advanced  pedagogues 
have  reached  who  believe  that  the  prime  re- 
quisite of  school  organizations,  methods  and 
subjects  should  be  that  they  fit  the  nature  and 
needs  of  the  child. 


Jdi  INTRODUCTION 

The  war  has  compelled  teachers  as  well  as 
politicians  to  go  back  to  first  principles  and  ask, 
as  genetic  psychologists  have  long  been  doing, 
what  is  the  real  nature  of  man.  They  have 
done  this  in  the  belief  that  this  is  the  ultimate 
source  of  appeal  and  that  there  must  be  a  wide 
re-evaluation  of  human  institutions  and  of  edu- 
cation, not  least  and  perhaps  most  of  all,  to  fit 
the  needs  of  the  vaster  future  that  is  now  open 
before  us.  The  old  education  will  certainly  not 
suffice  for  the  new  era.  Everything  must  be 
re-evaluated  in  terms  of  man's  innate  capacities 
and  spontaneities,  and  many  old  topics  are  sure 
to  be  seen  in  a  new  light.  There  should  es- 
pecially be  a  redistribution  between  required 
and  elective  work.  The  relative  stress  laid  upon 
ancient  versus  modern  languages  and  the  in- 
creased importance  of  English  language  and 
literature  are  among  the  most  imperative  and 
certain  changes,  as  is  the  new  stress  to  be  laid 
upon  practical  and  applied  subjects. 

Greek  has  already  lost  its  former  place  in 
the  high  school,  and  Latin  is  likely  to  lose  much 
of  its  prominence  despite  the  very  active  and 
well-organized  propaganda  of  the  classicists  to 
represent  it  as  the  only  resource  of  culture 
against  Kultur.    We  can  no  longer  ignore  the 


INTRODUCTION  xiii 

vast  waste  of  time,  energy,  and  money  spent 
in  Latin  by  those  who  drop  it  before  any  profi- 
ciency is  acquired  and  whose  wretched  transla- 
tion into  English,  dulls,  in  fact,  just  that  finer 
sense  of  style  which  Latinists  claim  that  it 
gives.  The  fact  is  the  modern  world,  especially 
since  the  war,  has  become  vastly  more  interest- 
ing and  important  than  anything  which  clas- 
sical culture  can  give  us.  We  are  prone  to  for- 
get that  any,  even  vocational,  topics  can  be  made 
more  or  less  cultural.  We  forget,  too,  that 
the  Greek  and  Latin  authors  knew  no  other 
language  than  their  own,  and  their  style  would 
in  all  probability  have  been  marred  if  they  had 
dabbled  in  dead  languages  as  we  do.  In  Eng- 
lish, too,  we  need  a  radical  change  from  the 
present  excessive  attention  given  to  form  in 
order  to  give  content  the  chief  place.  Exten- 
sive reading  in  English  for  the  young  is  vastly 
more  effective  than  the  study  of  verbiage  and 
style  now  so  stressed.  Moreover,  it  is  too  often 
practically  forgotten  that  English  has  its  root 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  and  that  if  we 
really  would  imitate  the  French  educators  who 
are  now  urging  that  Latin  be  restored  and 
stressed  in  the  Lycee,  we  should,  by  the  same 
token,  stress  Anglo-Saxon,  for  the  roots  of  our 


adr  INTRODUCTION 

mother  tongue  grew  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
North  Sea  and  not  in  the  Adriatic. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  interest  is  the 
very  Holy  Ghost  of  education  and  that  so-called 
formal  studies  and  methods  of  discipline  are 
only,  for  the  most  part,  a  delusion  and  a  snare. 
They  make  degenerate  mental  tissue.  It  is  not 
culture  to  learn  to  speak  or  write  well  upon 
trivial  or  indefinite  subjects  but  rather  to  keep 
up  with  the  great  human  interests,  which  will 
come  to  expression  spontaneously  if  they  are 
given  a  fair  chance  to  do  so. 

Even  our  educational  psychology  is  for  the 
most  part  antiquated.  It  lives,  moves,  and  has 
its  being  in  a  pre-evolutionary  age,  and  was, 
with  a  few  striking  exceptions,  developed  by 
those  who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  wonderful 
advances  that  had  been  lately  made  in  our 
knowledge  of  the  will,  feelings,  sentiments,  and 
especially  of  the  great  surge  of  racial  life  that 
always  and  everywhere  tends  to  expand  the  soul 
of  the  individual  in  the  teens  toward  the  dimen- 
sions of  that  of  the  race.  These  changes  our 
system  in  general  tends  to  ignore  when  they 
ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  more  and  more 
stressed. 

Mr.  MacMe  has  seen  these  new  tendencies, 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

which  have  already  begun  to  work  their  great 
transformations,  so  that  his  book,  coming  as  it 
does  when  the  minds  of  educators  the  world 
over  are  more  open  than  ever  before,  appears 
at  the  psychological  moment. 

G.  STANLEY  HALL. 
Clark  UniveriUy 
July,  18ia 


EDUCATION  DURING 
ADOLESCENCE 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 


CHAPTER  I 

EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE  ^ 

Pbesident  G.  Stanley  Hall  of  Clark  Univer- 
sity, basing  his  views  not  only  on  the  needs 
of  society,  but  on  the  needs  of  the  adolescent, 
maintains  that  the  main  purpose  of  secondary 
education  is  to  ^Hrain  character,  to  suggest, 
to  awaken,  to  graft  interest,  to  give  range  and 
loftiness  of  sentiment  of  view,^  to  broaden 
knowledge  and  to  bring  everything  in  touch 
with  life.^ 

*Iii  connection  with  this  statement,  Dr.  HaU  reminds  us 
that  "the  Greek  teacher  of  youth  chose  to  be  called  an 
inspirer."  See  his  article  in  the  School  Review  for  Dec, 
1901,  p.  651,  Ped.  Sem.,  Mar.,  1902,  p.  94. 

'See  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education:  An  epitome  of 


'.2,1 ;/;  .^yx:!4.TiON'  OTaiNG  adolescence 

Education  during  adolescence,  Dr.  Hall  be- 
lieves, **  should  seek  to  feed  the  interests  and 
capacities  peculiar  to  the  adolescent  age;  it 
should  aim  to  fill  and  develop  mind,  heart,  will, 
and  body  rather  than  attempt  to  distill  a  budget 
of  prepared  knowledge  decreed  by  professors 
who  know  no  more  of  the  needs  of  this  age 
than  teachers  of  other  grades.^  The  only 
specialization  that  should  be  stressed  far  more 
is  the  vocational.  The  boy  should  be  helped  on 
toward  ability  to  earn  a  living  and  the  girl 
toward  what  is  necessary  in  the  conduct  of 
a  home,'** 

To  fulfill  these  aims  not  only  the  materials 
of  education,  but  the  methods  of  instruction 
should  be  vitalized,  humanized. 

G.  S.  HaU's  Writings,  by  Dr.  George  E.  Partridge,  p.  213. 
See  also  G.  S.  HaU's  "The  High  School  as  the  People's 
CoUege  versus  the  Fitting  School."  Ped.  Sem.,  Mar.,  1902, 
pp.  70-71.     Proc.  N.   E.  A.  1902. 

»G.  S.  Hall,  Ideal  School  Based  on  Child  Study.  Proc 
N.  E.  A.,  1901,  p.  487,  The  Forum,  Sept.,  1901,  Vol.  XXXII, 
p.  37.  "Adolescence,  2  Vols.,  D.  Appleton  &  Company  (1904) 
Educational  Problems,  2  Vols.,  (1911).  These  works  con- 
sider education  from  the  point  of  view  of  genetic  psy- 
chology and  the  needs  of  society. 

•G.  S.  HaU,  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  651. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCB  3 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  Dr.  Hall 
holds  such  views.  It  is  because  he  bases  his 
high  school  pedagogy  largely  on  the  psychology 
of  adolescence.  He  calls  attention  to  the  sig- 
nificance and  some  of  the  psychic  characteristics 
of  youth  in  the  following  statements:  ** Prob- 
ably the  most  important  changes  for  the 
educator  to  study  are  those  which  begin  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twelve  and  sixteen  and  are 
completed  only  some  years  later  when  the 
young  adolescent  receives  from  nature  a  new 
capital  of  energy  and  altruistic  feeling.  It  is  a 
physiological  second  birth,  and  success  in  life 
depends  upon  the  care  and  wisdom  with  which 
this  new  and  final  invoice  of  energy  is  hus- 
banded."' 

During  later  childhood  pupils  **need  much 
drill,  habituation,  authority  and  memory  work ; 
K    I  but  as  adolescence  slowly  supervenes  and  boy- 
/  hood  is  molted,  the  method  of  freedom  and  ap- 
peal to  interest  and  spontaneity  should  be  in- 
creased.   Now  the  best  things  are  springing  up 

•G.  S.  HaU,  Youth:  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hy- 
giene, p.  359. 


4     EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

in  the  human  soul.  If  there  is  any  genius  or 
talent,  enthusiasm  for  work  or  for  ideals,  they 
begin  now  to  be  felt.  If  the  race  is  ever  to 
advance,  it  will  not  be  by  increasing  the  aver- 
age longevity  or  directly  by  enriching  the  last 
Btages  of  life,  but  by  prolonging  this  period  of 
development  so  that  youth  shall  not  die  and  its 
zest  and  enthusiasm  grow  pale.'"* 

Further,  **It  is  the  time  when  there  is  the 
most  rapid  development  of  the  heart  and  all 
the  feelings  and  emotions.  Fear,  anger,  love, 
pity,  jealousy,  emulation,  ambition  and  sym- 
pathy are  either  now  born  or  springing  into 
their  most  intense  life.  Now  young  people  are 
interested  in  adults,  and  one  of  their  strongest 
passions  is  to  be  treated  as  if  they  were  mature. 
They  desire  to  know,  do,  and  be,  all  that  be- 
comes a  man  or  woman.  Childhood  is  ending 
and  plans  for  future  vocations  now  spring  into 
existence,  and  slowly  grow  definite  and  con- 
trolling."^ 

•  G.  S.  HaU,  School  Review,  Dec,  1901,  "How  Far  is  the 
Present  High  School  and  Early  College  Training  Adapted 
to  the  Nature  and  Needs  of  Adolescents?" 

'Proceedings  N.  E.  A,  1901,  p.  483. 


EDUCATION  DUBING  ADOLESCENCE  5 

According  to  the  last  statement  vocational 
education  is  in  harmony  with  the  psychology  of 
adolescence.  **We  must  provide  all  opportunity 
for  selective  interests,  for  giving  scope  to 
special  ability  and  inclination,  keeping  youth  in 
touch  with  real  life,  and  at  the  same  time  mak- 
ing training  truly  cultural.  There  must  be 
many  kinds  of  courses  and  schools,  technical 
and  every  other  kind  of  industrial  institute, 
open  day  and  evening.  We  greatly  need,  too, 
vocational  experts  who,  by  studying  the  capaci- 
ties of  individuals,  will  help  to  eliminate  the 
waste  in  human  energy  now  so  prevalent,  and 
to  bring  the  young  more  successfully  to  the  stage 
of  citizenship  and  self-respect  which  comes 
only  through  self-support.''® 

The  idea  that  some  educators  have  that  fit- 
ting for  college  and  fitting  for  life  are  identical 
is  a  pernicious  doctrine,  according  to  Dr.  HalL  v 
He  thinks  that  it  can  more  truly  be  said  that 
fitting   for   college   is   unfitting   for   life,    so 

•Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  139.  See  also 
Educational  Problems,  Vol.  I.  Chapter  on  ''Industrial 
Education." 


«  EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

clerical,  sedentary,  bookish,  and  arbitrary  is 
the  high  school  teaching.  Almost  nothing  of 
the  current  high  school  courses  appeals  to  the 
best  powers  of  the  youth,  and  those  subjects 
that  perhaps  are  best  fitted  for  the  time  are 
likely  to  be  taught  in  such  a  way  as  to  rob 
them  of  all  their  educative  value.  The  logical 
order  and  divisions  of  subjects  everywhere 
prevail  and  take  precedence  over  the  psy- 
chological.® 

The  college  professors  are  to  some  extent 
responsible  for  this  condition  of  affairs  for 
they  tell  the  high  schools  what  to  do  and  how 
to  do  it.  But  it  should  not  be  a  question,  what 
does  the  college  require,  but  rather,  what  does 
the  student  need,  what  is  best  for  the  boy  and 
girl  at  this  stage  of  development.  The  high 
school  should  act  independently  of  the  college 
and  should  aim  to  serve  one  period  of  growth 
in  the  best  way  possible.  It  should  give  to  each 
boy  and  girl  what  is  individually  best  at  this 
time  for  the  youth's  mental,  moral,  and  phys- 

•6.  B.  Partridge,  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  pp. 
314-16. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE  7 

ical  development.  If  this  is  done,  the  student 
will  be  well  prepared  for  college. 

The  high  school  should  dictate  to  the  college 
rather  than  take  *^ dictation.''  The  college  is 
going  just  a  little  too  far  when  it  tells  the 
high  school  what  it  shall  teach,  and  what  it 
shall  not  teach ;  what  methods  it  shall  use,  and 
what  methods  it  shall  not  use.  The  college  has 
no  right,  no  power,  no  authority  whatsoever  to 
dictate  to  the  high  school.  That  power  lies 
Bolely,  exclusively  with  the  school  authorities, 
and  ultimately  with  the  people  who  support  the 
high  school.  It  should  therefore  be  responsive 
to  their  needs  and  desires.  The  people  are 
demanding  that  the  high  school  shall  give  each 
student  the  training  that  will  be  worth  while 
in  the  conduct  of  life,  and  if  it  does  this,  the 
student  will  be  well  fitted  to  enter  college  for 
further  training.  The  college  should  take  the 
high  school  student  where  it  finds  him,  and  then 
proceed  in  its  own  way  to  build  the  next  higher 
stage. 

With  reference  to  ** college  domination,"  a 
point  we  have  just  discussed  briefly.  Dr.  Hall 


8  BDUCATIONI  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

says:  ''The  high  school  should  no  longer  be 
content  to  play  an  ohligato  for  the  college  sym- 
phony. The  high  school  authorities  should  say 
to  the  dons  who  manipulate  the  bachelor's 
degree,  'Here  are  our  graduates  for  whom  we 
have  done  what  we  deem  best  for  their  stage 
of  life.  We  and  not  you  are  judges  of  what 
this  is.  Take  them  or  leave  them,'  and  the 
college  with  its  intense  competition  for  students 
would  gladly  accept  the  conditions  and  in  the 
end  would  greatly  profit  by  it  in  the  number 
of  students." '° 

Everyone  "who  can  profit  more  by  being  in 
college  than  elsewhere  has  a  right  to  be  there. 
,  .  .  There  is  no  tragedy  in  our  system  quite 
equal  to  that  of  holding  up  a  bright  earnest 
young  man  for  a  year  before  granting  him  the 
high  school  diploma  because  he  failed  by  a 
point  or  two."  "  Further,  the  whole  system  of 
standardization  of  units  is  wrong,  for  it  takes^ 
no  account  of  **the  human  element  by  which 

"Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  622,  Of.  Ped.  San., 
Mar.,  1902,  p.  72. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  663. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE  9 

man  judges  man  in  society,  in  business,  and  in 
the  world  generally,  in  all  affairs.''"  ''The 
only  question  the  college  has  a  right  to  ask  is 
whether  or  not  the  boy  and  girl  can  do  the 
work  offered  and  get  more  out  of  it  than  in  any 
other  stage."  ^^ 

College  professors  are  not  entirely  respon- 
sible for  the  present  status  of  secondary  educa- 
tion. There  is  another  reason  for  complaint: 
As  a  rule  teachers  in  high  school  are  not  in- 
terested enough  in  the  psychology  of  adoles- 
cence. The  studies  are  not  chosen  with  refer- 
ence to  suitability  to  the  capacity  of  the 
student,  and  they  are  not  taught  in  such  a  way 
as  to  take  advantage  of  the  natural  learning 
methods  of  the  adolescent  age.  In  view  of  these 
facts.  Dr.  Hall  says,  that  *^the  time  has  now 
fully  come  when  we  must  invoke  the  American 
muse  of  common  sense  and  seriously  ask 
whether  the  high  school  is  doing  the  most  and 
best  that  it  can  and  should,  or  is  accomplishing 
what  the  community  has  a  right  to  expect  from 

"Educational  Problems,  VoL  II,  p.  647. 
"Ibid,  p.  623. 


10         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

it.  Dissatisfaction  with  the  methods,  matter, 
and  results  are  wide-spread  and  increasing."" 

The  changes  needed  in  the  high  school  are 
so  radical  that  they  involve  not  only  the 
methods  of  teaching  and  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion, but  the  entire  conception  of  the  function 
of  the  high  school.  It  must  fit  better  for  life 
the  great  majority  who  go  no  farther,  and  be 
so  changed  as  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  three- 
fourths  who  drop  out  of  the  course  before  the 
end.  "  And  in  order  to  do  this  we  must  recog- 
nize what  Dr.  Hall  says,  viz.,  the  young  adoles- 
cent is  **a  new  kind  of  being  which  demands 
a  new  environment,  new  methods,  and  new 
matter." 

In  regard  to  method,  the  **  drill  and  mechan- 
ism of  the  previous  period  must  be  gradually 
relaxed,  and  an  appeal  must  be  made  to  free- 
dom and  interest.  . .  .  We  can  no  longer  coerce 
and  break,  but  must  lead  and  inspire.  To  drill 
merely  is  now  to  arrest. "  The  class  room  work 
should  be  vitalized  by  transferring  the  discus- 

"G.  S.  Hall,  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  647. 
"Genetic  Philosopliy  of  Education,  p.  316. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE         11 

sions  and  conversations  to  the  class  circle.  Ques- 
tions, criticisms,  and  suggestions  should  be 
between  the  students,  with  the  teacher  only,*r 
occasionally  drawn  in,  rather  than  always  be- 
tween the  teacher  and  some  student.  (See 
Chapter  VTE,  Section  III.) 

The  subjects  of  instruction  should  be  vital- 
ized, as  well  as  the  methods  of  teaching.  The 
vitalization  of  the  high  school  means,  among 
other  things,  the  elimination  of  certain  studies, 
or  at  least  parts  of  certain  studies,  and  the 
substitution  therefor  of  studies  and  work  of 
social,  moral,  vocational,  and  psychological 
significance.  The  new  subject-matter  that 
ought  to  be  introduced  during  adolescence  will 
be  in  harmony  with  the  interests  and  capacities 
of  boys  and  girls  in  this  stage  of  development. 
**Each  individual  must  be  studied  and  made  a 
special  problem  and  the  work  adapted  to  his 
nature  and  needs  if  his  personality  is  to  come 
to  full  maturity.  Hence,  there  must  be  a  wide 
range  of  elective  study  for  those  who  continue 
at  school."  If  our  high  school  education  were 
based  to  a  greater  extent  on  the  psychology 


12         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

of  adolescence  it  would  take  a  stronger  hold 
on  the  ** interests  and  affections  of  the  pupil."  *• 

If  the  aims  of  high  school  education  are  to 
be  approximately  fulfilled,  if  secondary  educa- 
tion is  to  be  vitalized — ^humanized,  much  is  re- 
quired of  the  teachers.  Above  all,  they  should 
not  be  too  precise,  for  pupils  are  at  the  age 
**when  the  soul  cries  out  for  wholes,  not  de- 
tails ;  for  facts,  not  formulae ;  for  growth,  not 
for  logical  order ;  for  crude  masses  of  informa- 
tion, not  for  accuracy  or  analysis.  Whenever 
we  insist  upon  accuracy  and  finish  we  are  forc- 
ing nature,  which  decrees  that  youth  should  be 
kept  plastic  and  growing." 

In  teaching,  large  conceptions  rather  than 
details  should  be  presented,  for  quantity  and 
enrichment  are  more  to  be  desired  than  ac- 
curacy. Examinations  *^  should  have  but  little 
place  in  high  school  education.  Definite,  com- 
plete, systematic  knowledge  should  not  be 
stressed.    All  studies  that  are  merely  formal, 


"Forum,  Sept.,  1901,  pp.  35-37. 

"Ideal  School  as  Based  on  Child  Study,  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
1901,  p.  485. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE         13 

which  require  drill  and  drudgery,  such  as  the 
languages,  should  have  a  very  subordinate 
place  in  the  curriculum,  for  in  dull  drill  valu- 
able time  is  consumed,  without  adequate  com- 
pensation. Everything  that  might  cause  ar- 
rested development  should  be  eliminated." 
This  is  particularly  true  in  regard  to  the  educa- 
tion of  girls  during  adolescence.  According  to 
our  authority,  *Hhe  first  aim  which  should 
dominate  every  item,  pedagogic  method  and 
matter  should  be  health,  a  momentous  word 
that  looms  up  beside  holiness,  to  which  it  is 
etymologically  akin.  The  new  hygiene  of  the 
last  few  years  should  be  supreme  and  make 
these  academic  areas  sacred  to  the  cult  of  the 
goddess  Hygeia."" 

We  cannot  recall  to  mind  too  often  what  Dr. 
Hall  says  in  his  epoch-making  work  Educa- 
tional Problems :  The  mind  during  adolescence 
**  craves  masses  of  general  and  germinal  knowl- 
edge and  needs  to  see  large  surfaces  without 

"Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  211-13. 

»G.  S.  Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  II,  p.  637.  See  also  Child 
Study:  The  Basis  of  Exact  Education,  Forum,  Dec.,  1803, 
p.  436. 


14         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

the  thoroughness  and  accuracy  which  is  not  yet 
germane.  For  this  they  are  too  immature. 
The  age  for  doing  everything  well,  or  not  at 
all,  has  not  yet  come.  The  muse  of  exactness 
needs  older  devotees.  Now  the  soul  absorbs 
suggestions,  typical  facts  in  a  vague  and  un- 
accountable way.  This  is  the  time  of  extensive- 
ness  and  not  intensiveness ;  culture  to  be  best 
instilled,  should  be  general,  and  the  only 
specialization  that  should  be  stressed  far  more 
than  at  present  should  be  vocational.  The  boy 
should  be  helped  on  toward  ability  to  earn  a 
living  and  the  girl  toward  what  is  necessary 
in  the  conduct  of  a  home.  These  are  the  prime 
and  essential  considerations  and  all  else  rings 
hoUow.''*« 

Comment 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said,  it  seems  to 
me,  that  the  high  school  should  have  at  least 
four  specific  aims: 

First:     Physical    well-being,    fostered    not 

»G.  S.  HaU,  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  651. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE         15 

merely  by  gymnastic  exercises,  by  reading 
books  on  physiology,  and  by  listening  to  lec- 
tures on  hygiene,  but  by  a  face  to  face  study 
of,  and  experience  with,  the  conditions  of 
wholesome  living.  ^^  Many  other  things  may 
be  important,  but  the  adolescent's  ** first  busi- 
ness is  to  grow.  He  may  have  another  oppor- 
tunity for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  but  the 
demand  for  physical  development  cannot 
wait, '  '^^  and  furthermore,  we  should  bear  in  mind 
that  **  among  the  habits  distinctly  conducive 
to  health  must  be  reckoned  active  interests  in 
nature,  in  outdoor  sports,  in  varied  forms  of 
artistic  activity,  in  social  life  and  social  in- 
stitutions."" 

Second:  Vocational  Guidance:  This  is  of 
fundamental  importance  to  the  great  majority 
of  high  school  students.  The  teachers  should 
do  everything  possible  to  awaken,  arouse, 
stimulate,   and   direct  the  interests   and   en- 

"Cf.  David  Snedden*s  article  in  Charities  and  Commonfl, 
April  25,  1908. 

»W.  H.  Burnham,  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  pp.  727-734. 

"W.  H.  Burnham's  article  In  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of 
Education,  Vol.  I,  pp.  44-46. 


16         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

thusiasm  of  the  student  and  besides  a  syste- 
matic effort  should  be  made  to  discover  the 
student's  dominant  interests  and  powers  and 
thus  assist  him  in  the  choice  of  the  vocation 
in  which  he  is  most  likely  to  succeed.  But  this 
is  not  all.  The  high  school  should  actually  give 
some  vocational  instruction  for  those  who  do 
not  care  to,  or  cannot  go  on  to  some  higher 
institution  of  learning.  A  suggestion  might  be 
added :  The  work  should  me  made  entirely  flex- 
ible and  should  offer  numerous  opportunities 
for  a  change  of  course  as  a  student's  inclina- 
tions are  modified  or  his  tendencies  are  de- 
veloped. 

Third:  Personal  Culture. "  This  is  not  to 
be  attained  by  studying  Greek,  Latin,  other 
foreign  languages,  and  mathematics^"  accord- 
ing to  contemporary  authorities,  but  rather 
through  the  influence  of  cultured  people  and  by 
receiving  instruction  in  subjects  that  have  a 
direct  bearing  on  the  conduct  and  problems  of 

*«  Henry  SuzzaUo,  tntroduction  to  C.  W.  Eliot*s  mono- 
graph, Education  for  Efficiency. 

"David  Snedden,  What  of  Liberal  Education.  Atlantic 
Monthly,  Jan.,  1912. 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE         17 

life.  Although  no  study  will  necessarily  make 
a  person  cultured,  and  while  the  classics  and 
other  foreign  languages  and  mathematics  may 
do  something  toward  fulfilling  the  personal  cul- 
ture aim,  history,  literature  and  modern  civic 
and  social  problems  will  undoubtedly  do  more 
in  this  direction  than  the  foreign  languages  and 
mathematics.  In  order  to  be  truly  cultural, 
education  during  adolescence  should,  as  already 
pointed  out,  aim  **to  train  character,  to  sug- 
gest, to  awaken,  to  graft  interests,  to  give 
range  and  loftiness  of  sentiment  of  view."  It 
ought  **to  develop  mind,  heart,  will  and  b'ody, 
rather  than  attempt  to  distill  a  budget  of  pre- 
pared knowledge  decreed  by  professors  who 
know  no  more  of  the  needs  of  this  age  than 
teachers  of  other  grades."^® 

Fourth:  Social  efficiency  in  the  sense  of 
awareness  of  civic  and  moral  responsibility, 
and  the  desire  and  ability  to  co-operate  with 
one's  fellows  to  promote  the  common  welfare. 
Social  efficiency,  which  will  contribute  both 

*  G.  S.  HaU,  The  Ideal  School  as  Based  on  Child  Study. 
Forum,  Sept,  1901,  pp.  24-30. 


18         EDUCATION  DtJRING  ADOLESCENCE 

directly  and  indirectly  to  a  person's  vocational 
efficiency  may  be  promoted,  from  the  academic 
standpoint,  in  the  same  way  as  personal  culture 
is  promoted,  by  developing  a  permanent  inter- 
est in  reading  the  best  literature  and  in  study- 
ing practical  problems  pertaining  to  society 
and  government  and  the  essential  facts  of  the 
history  of  civilization.  Emphasis  should  be 
placed  on  preparing  for  service  because  **  serv- 
ice is  the  highest  criterion  of  the  worth  of  lives. 
We  are  learning  that,  whether  in  history  or  in 
romance,  the  names  that  shine  with  the  fairest 
and  brightest  light  and  last  longest  are  those 
that  have  done  most  service.  The  great  mo- 
ments in  great  lives  are  those  when  the  supreme 
choice  is  to  be  made  between  self  and  the  wel- 
fare of  others,  and  the  best  criterion  of  su- 
preme manhood  and  womanhood  is  when  the 
latter  prevails.  More  and  more  enlightened 
public  opinion  is  coming  to  distinguish  between 
those  who  live  and  die  for  themselves  and  those 
who  live  and  die  by  the  gospel  of  helpful- 
ness.'''^ 
"Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  668. 


CHAPTER  n 

SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

High  schools  throughout  the  United  States 
are  beginning  to  base  their  courses  of  study  on 
adolescent  psychology  and  the  needs  of  society, 
and  ^  few  of  the  most  progressive  high  schools 
of  the  country  have  already  put  into  actual 
operation  and  *  administration,  features  that 
are  almost  in  harmony  with  the  fundamental 
aims  or  purposes  of  education  during  adoles- 
cence as  stated  in  the  first  chapter. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  best  examples  ^  of  these 
advanced  schools  is  the  one  in  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia, which  will  now  be  considered.  The  rea- 
son for  the  selection  of  this  institution  is  not 
merely  because  it  represents  present  tendencies, 
but  because,  in  some  respects,  it  approximates 
the  ideal,  and  thus  serves  to  illustrate  some 
admirable  features  in  progressive  high  school 
reorganization. 

'"One  example  Is  worth  a  thousand  arguments." 

19 


ao 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 


Instead  of  the  usual  eight  years  of  elementary 
and  four  years  for  high  school  work,  the  twelve 
grades  of  the  public  schools  in  Berkeley  are 
divided  into  elementary  education,  comprising 
the  first  six  grades  and  secondary  education, 
comprising  the  grades  seven  to  twelve  inclusive. 
In  order  to  understand  just  why  the  high  school 
should  be  extended  downward,  we  must  speak 
of  elementary  as  well  as  secondary  school  work. 
We  must  consider  the  whole  system. 


Educational  Periods. 

Schools. 

Ages. 

Grades. 

Elementary 

Primary  School 

Granmiar  School. .. 

6to    9 
9  to  12 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

Secondary 

Jmiior  High  School . 
Senior  High  School. 

12  to  15 
15  to  18 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

The  question  naturally  suggests  itself :  What 
is  the  reason  for  so  radical  a  change  from  the 
ordinary  divisions  of  the  curriculum!  Why 
does  Berkeley  have  just  six  years  for  elemen- 
tary education!    To  answer  this  question,  it  is 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA.       21 

necessary  to  consider  the  aim  of  the  first  six 
years  of  schooling.  The  fundamental  aim  is  to 
obtain  the  use  of  the  tools  of  learning ;  that  is, 
the  pupil  should  learn  to  read  and  write  fairly 
well  and  to  perform  accurately  and  with  some 
degree  of  rapidity  the  fundamental  operations 
of  arithmetic.  Of  course  other  studies  may  and 
should  be  added,  but  obtaining  the  use  of  the 
** tools  of  learning"  is  the  main  purpose. 

Six  years  is  certainly  long  enough  in  which 
to  accomplish  this.  To  spend  more  time  than 
six  years  on  elementary  education  exaggerates 
its  importance  and  leads  to  the  belief  that  it  is 
education  itself  instead  of  preparation  for  an 
education.  )The  first  six  years  of  school  should 
emphasize  chiefly  the  formal  aspects  of  educa- 
tion. )  The  mission  of  elementary  education  is 
to  prepare  for  further  school  work.  It  aims 
not  at  knowledge  itself,  but  at  supplying  the 
tools  of  the  mind  and  at  inculcating  attitudes 
and  habits  of  mind  that  will  enable  the  in- 
dividual later  to  pursue  knowledge  and  in- 
dustry. * 

'Dr.  C.  O.  Davis,  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, Educational  Review,  Oct.,  1911. 


22         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

Statistics  show  that  the  masses  are  held  in 
school  only  through  the  fifth  grade,  after  which 
they  drop  out  in  very  large  numbers,  which 
means,  educationally,  that  whatever  is  to  be 
taught  to  the  masses  must  be  given  in  the  first 
five  or  six  years.^  By  terminating  a  cycle  of 
work  with  the  sixth  year,  unquestionably  the 
tendency  will  be  to  hold  such  pupils  at  least 
one  year  longer,  namely  to  the  end  of  the  sixth 
grade.* 

'  Something  should  be  said  briefly  concerning 
the  curriculum  of  this  unique  school.  The  first 
six  years  of  the  course  is  uniform  for  all 
children  and  somewhat  narrow  in  its  scope. 
The  studies  emphasized  are  those  which  the 
masses  must  have,  even  if  they  wish  to  start 
life  with  the  smallest  amount  of  preparation. 
Whether  or  not  the  pupils  get  anything  else, 
they  learn  how  to  read,  write  and  use  their  own 
language,  both  in  oral  and  written  form;  how 

■F.  M.  Leavitt,  Examples  of  Industrial  Education,  p.  84. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

•  F.  F.  Bunker,  Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  Sys- 
tem, Government  Printing  Ofllce,  Washington,  D.  C.  1916, 
p.  113. 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA       23 

to  perform  with  facility  and  accuracy  the  simple 
operations  of  arithmetic  and  accounting;  and 
they  get,  also  in  these  first  six  years,  some 
knowledge  of  their  city,  state,  and  national  gov- 
ernment. In  addition,  the  pupils  learn  the 
elementary  principles  of  sanitation  and  health 
conditions  which  everybody  should  know,  not 
only  to  protect  themselves  as  individuals,  but 
to  protect  society  as  well.  All  of  this  is  effi- 
ciently accomplished  in  the  six-year  elementary 
school  at  Berkeley. 

As  shown  in  the  diagram  on  page  20,  the  Six- 
Year  Berkeley  High  School  curriculum  is  di- 
vided into  two  periods  of  three  years  each.  The 
Introductory  or  Junior  high  school  comprises 
the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grades,  while  the 
Senior  or  High  School  proper  ^  is  made  up  of 
the  tenth,  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades. 

By  an  examination  of  the  following  program 
you  may  see  what  subjects  are  taught  in  the 
Introductory  or  Lower  High  School : 

»lu  the  Upper  or  Senior  High  School  the  only  requfred 
studies  are  English,  (3  years),  Science,  (1  year),  and 
United  States  History  and  Government,  (1  year).  Physical 
Education,   (1  year),  and  Assembly  Singing,   (3  years). 


24 


EDUCATION  DURixa  adolesce:tce 


to    tQwto    loio    eouMo 


^  £l^ 


lO     toioto 


SIX-YEAR  fflGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA       25 

Two  main  criticisms  of  tliis  program  might 
be  offered:  First,  Plays,  Games  and  Personal 
Hygiene  ought  to  be  emphasized;  and  second, 
General  Science,  General  Mathematics  and 
Vocational  Information  should  be  offered  in  the 
ninth  grade. 

The  majority  of  the  children  enter  the  in- 
troductory high  school,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period  of  adolescence,  when  by  nature  they 
naturally  crave  an  opportunity  to*  dip  into  a 
wide  range  of  subjects  and  activities,  which  is 
Nature's  way  of  insuring  freedom  of  choice  in 
determining  occupation. 

The  work  .of  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth 
grades  comprising  the  Introductory  high  school 
is  related  very  closely  to  life,  and  as  far  away 
as  possible  from  that  which  is  purely  academic 
in  education.  Much  emphasis  is  placed  on  learn- 
ing how  to  study,  and  how  to  use  the  library. 

The  work  of  the  Introductory  High  School  is 
arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a  more 
easy  transition  from  the  work  of  the  elementary 
grades  to  the  work  of  the  high  school  proper. 
In  regard  to  the  need  of  a  better  transition 


26         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

and  the  way  the  new  plan  meets  this  need  F. 
P.  Bunker  says :  *  *  The  explanation  for  the  break 
in  attendance  between  the  ninth  and  tenth  years, 
which  experience  shows  to  be  a  very  heavy  one 
under  the  usual  grouping  of  grades,  lies  largely 
in  the  fact  that  the  pupil,  coming  into  the  high 
school  from  the  grades,  fails  to  make  a  proper 
adjustment.  In  consequence  he  begins  to  fail 
in  his  work,  becomes  disheartened  and  discour- 
aged, and  drops  out  before  he  reaches  the  tenth 
grade;  and  worst  of  all,  he  drops  out  because 
he  has  failed.  Throwing  the  seventh,  eighth 
and  ninth  grades  together  in  a  second  cycle  of 
work  which  shall  have  distinguishing  character- 
istics from  that  which  precedes  it,  as  well  as 
from  that  which  follows ;  arranging  everything 
connected  therewith  to  make  his  work  a  three- 
year  transition  period  from  the  elementary 
school  to  the  upper  high  school,  and  yet  shap- 
ing the  work  so  that  it  is  a  unit  in  itself  which 
can  be  terminated  if  necessary,  at  the  end  of 
the  ninth  year — ^will  not  only  tend  to  hold  a 
year  longer  the  pupil  who  would  otherwise 
drop  out  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  year,  but  will 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICUIA       27 

go  very  far  toward  insuring  a  complete  adjust- 
ment to  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  the 
upper  high  school.  ®  It  likewise  offers,  at  the 
end  of  the  ninth  year,  an  opportunity  for  the 
pupil  to  check  up  his  own  judgment,  and  to 
determine  whether  his  circumstances,  as  well 
as  his  tastes,  are  such  as  to  justify  him  in  going 
on  for  three  years  more  in  secondary  work. 
If,  after  making  a  careful  survey  of  such  mat- 
ters, he  decides  to  leave  school,  he  leaves  con- 
scious of  having  succeeded  rather  than  because 
he  had  failed — causing  a  very  different  reaction 
upon  his  character."^ 

It  is  interesting  to  note  what  is  said  concern- 
ing the  success  of  the  new  plan:  **The  response 
in  lessening  the  mortality  between  the  ninth 
and  tenth  grades  through  arranging  the  school 
work  in  three  cycles,  has  been  so  immediate  and 
decisive  as  to  admit  of  no  doubt  respecting  the 

•  "Approximately  85  per  cent  of  the  children  entering  th6 
public  schools  of  the  United  States  leave  between  the  ages 
of  twelve  and  fifteen,"  F.  M.  Leavitt,  Examples  of  Indus- 
trial Education,  p.  54,  Ginn  &  Co.,  1912. 

»F.  F.  Bunker,  The  Better  Articulation  of  the  Parts  of 
the  Public  School  System,  Educational  Review,  March,  1914, 
Vol.  XLVII,  pages  263-66. 


28         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

tendency/*  It  is  added,  however,  that  "per- 
haps, the  consideration  of  greatest  significance 
which  such  a  plan  of  school  organization  offers, 
lies  in  the  opportunity  that  it  gives  of  radically 
changing  ihe  nature  and  content  of  the  course 
of  study.''® 

^Advantages  of  the  New  Plan  of  Organization 

The  advantages  of  the  six-year  plan  may  be 
summarized  as  follows: 

First:  It  not  only  mitigates  the  abruptness 
of  the  transition  from  the  elementary  school 
and  checks  the  loss  of  pupils  at  this  critical 
period,®  but  it  prevents  pupils  from  leaving 
school  before  this  time,  and  one  of  the  reasons 
for  this  is  that  the  new  plan,  among  other 
things,  forces  the  elimination  of  non-essentials 
in  the  elementary  curriculum,  especially  in- 
herited puzzles,  ^^  and  besides,  it  makes  **pos- 

■F.  F.  Bunker,  Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  Sys- 
tem, p.  114,  Government  Printing  Office,  1916.  Washington, 
D.  C. 

•Proceedings,  National  Education  Association,  1908,  p. 
625. 

*»  Edward  Robinson.  The  Reorganization  of  the  Grades 
and  the  High  SchooL  School  Review,  Dec,  1912. 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA       29 

sible  the  teaching  of  subjects  at  the  time  when 
the  mind  is  best  fitted  to  receive  them.''  It  is 
well  known  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  pupils, 
especially  the  boys,  drop  out  because  they  lack 
interest  in  elementary  school  work;  so  some  con- 
tend that  if  we  could  get  the  student  weU  set- 
tled in  the  high  school  course  of  study,  even 
a  short  time  before  he  reaches  the  adolescent 
period,  we  should  have  a  better  opportunity  to 
interest  and  inspire  him  in  the  work  of  the  high 
school ;  and,  if  once  interested  and  inspired,  it 
is  likely  he  would  continue  through  the  entire 
high  school  course. 

Second:  It  is  conceded  by  most  educators 
that  young  adolescents  should  be  taught  by 
more  men  teachers  than  are  employed  under 
the  present  regime.  Since  there  are  more  male 
teachers  in  the  high  schools  this  condition  is 
fulfilled.  Dr.  Hall  emphasizes  the  fact,  that 
under  the  old  regime,  the  vast  majority  of  boys 
and  girls,  perhaps  nineteen  out  of  twenty,  and 
often  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred,  leave  school 
without  ever  having  been,  for  a  single  day,  under 
the  influence  of  a  male  teacher.    This  he  calls 


80         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

a  ** positive  scandal''"  which  has  been  minim- 
ized wherever  the  **Six  and  Six  plan''  has  been 
introduced,  for  men  accept  positions  where  they 
are  allowed  to  present  secondary  school  sub- 
jects in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  He  then 
mentions  the  effect  this  has  on  the  pupils,  es- 
pecially the  boys.  **When  they  reach  the  teens 
and  their  manhood  begins  to  bourgeon,"  he 
says,  **they  do  not  instantly  think  of  school  as 
a  'sissy'  affair,  to  be  thrown  off,"  and  adds, 
that  **ten  years  of  secondary  education  in 
Europe  is  essentially  in  the  hands  of  men."" 
Third:  As  the  departmental  plan  of  instruc- 
tion exists  in  high  schools  and  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  new  plan,  the  pupils  at  the  dawn 
of  adolescence  receive  the  benefit  of  *  *  daily  con- 
tact with  several  personalities  instead  of  that 
all  day  association  with  one  teacher  which  often 
breeds  abnormal  psychic  atmosphere."  Au- 
thorities are  practically  unanimous  in  their  con- 
tention that  *'the  variety  of  teachers,  equip- 
ment,  methods    and   general    conditions,    the 

"Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  page  650. 
"Ibid.,  Vol  II,  p.  650. 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA       31 

physical  relief  in  changing  rooms,  the  continuity 
of  superior  teaching,  the  greater  educative 
freedom,  all  serve  to  stimulate  a  child  to  his 
best  endeavor.  Nothing  is  more  deadening  to 
a  child  than  to  listen  to  the  same  voice,  see 
the  same  surroundings,  witness  the  same 
methods,  and  all  within  the  narrow  confines  of 
a  single  room,  and  under  the  eye  of  the  same 
teacher.  Children  become  weary  of  this  eternal 
'sameness.'"^®  Furthermore,  the  new  plan 
gives  the  pupils  the  advantage  of  being  taught 
by  teachers  especially  trained  for  the  different 
branches,  the  gain  coming  from  the  better 
teaching  that  results  from  the  adaptation  of 
the  teacher  to  the  work  for  which  he  is  best 
fitted  and  for  which  he  has  made  special  prep- 
aration. When  an  instructor  teaches  allied 
subjects  he  is  able  to  specialize  and  do  the  work 
weU.  ^* 

Fourth:  The  six-year  high  school  curriculum 
is  fully  consistent  with  established  principles 

"  V.  E.  Kilpatrick,  Departmental  Teaching  in  Elementary 
Schools,   Macmillan  Co.      (An  excellent  work.) 

**  Proceedings,  National  Education  Association,  1908,  p. 
626. 


S2         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

of  genetic  pedagogy  and  psychology.  The  six- 
year  elementary  school  may  be  completed  and 
the  pupils  may  be  ready  to  enter  the  Intro- 
ductory high  school  when  they  are  about  twelve 
or  thirteen  years  of  age.  This  period  is  recog- 
nized by  distinguished  psychologists  as  the  be- 
ginning of  adolescence,  and  the  beginning  of 
adolescence,  many  authorities  maintain,  should 
be  the  beginning  of  secondary  education.  As 
pointed  out  in  the  first  chapter,  adolescence  de- 
mands, according  to  genetic  psychology,  that 
new  matter  and  new  methods  must  be  intro- 
duced. This  is  precisely  the  view  held  by  Dr. 
Hall,  for  he  contends  that  **we  must  take 
account  of  the  nature  of  the  great  upheaval  at 
the  dawn  of  the  teens,  which  marks  the  pubes- 
cent ferment,  and  which  requires  distinct 
change  in  matter  and  method  of  education.  .  .  . 
It  is  a  period  of  very  rapid  if  not  fulminating 
psychic  expansion.  .  .  .  The  drill  to  which  they 
have  been  subjected  before  pubescence  becomes 
irksome  when  they  reach  this  crisis.''  And 
speaking  specifically  of  the  new  six-year  plan, 
he  says:  *^It  would  bring  about  the  change  of 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA       33 

external  conditions  which  always  ought  to 
mark  the  great  change  within,  that  takes  place 
at  the  dawn  of  pubescent  years,  which  our  sys- 
tem now,  instead  of  stressing  as  the  world — 
savage  and  civilized — ^has  everywhere  done, 
tends  to  obliterate.  Mankind,  throughout  all 
its  history,  has  marked  the  faint  dawn  of 
sexual  maturity  by  initiations,  training  in  new 
modes  of  life,  confirmation,  etc.,  as  befits  the 
nature  and  needs  of  this  stage  of  evolution.^** 
Children  are  now  approaching  maturity,  and 
are  impressed  in  a  very  new  and  strange  way 
by  the  lives  of  those  older  than  themselves, 
and  by  adults,  and  it  is  just  this  association 
and  spur  that  the  present  system  cuts  off,  for 
the  boy  in  the  upper  grammar  grades  has  no 
higher  classmates  to  admire  and  imitate.  These 
two  evils,  namely,  the  obliteration  of  pubes- 
cence, and  the  elimination  of  the  influence  of 
those  older,  are  very  real  and  very  grave  evils 
in  our  system  which  must  be  remedied,  if  we 
are  to  work  with,  and  not  against  nature."  **I 
am  fully  convinced,"  says  the  same  authority, 
»  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  648. 


U         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

speaking  further  of  the  six-year  high  school, 
**that  the  interests  of  both  community  and 
child  demand  some  such  extension  downward, 
and  also  that  it  is  inevitable.  Of  course,  it 
would  involve  some  additional  expense  to  bring 
boys  of  twelve  under  more  male  teachers,  and 
would  require  larger  appropriations,  but,  as  it 
is  needed,  this  change  must  come. ' '  ^' 

There  seems  to  be  an  increasing  demand 
throughout  the  country  for  courses  of  study 
similar  to  those  that  follow: 

"Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  648. 


SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CUHEICUIA       36 


36 


EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 


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SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA       37 


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EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 


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CHAPTER  m 

PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION 

The  fact  that  some  of  the  greatest  colleges 
and  universities  of  this  country  recognize  the 
limited  elective  system  of  high  school  studies 
for  admission  shows  that  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  in  that  direction.  ^  Two  of  the  most 
progressive  institutions  to  adopt  this  policy 
recently  are  Reed  College,  founded  in  1912  at 
Portland,  Oregon,  and  the  University  of 
Chicago,  which  changed  in  1911  its  require- 
ments for  admission  and  graduation.  ^ 

*It  seems  to  me  that  the  State  CoUege  of  Washington 
and  the  University  of  Chicago  have  approximated  the  ideal 
in  regard  to  admission  requirements,  while  Reed  College 
and  Stanford  University  have  approximated  the  ideal  with 
reference  to  requirements  for  graduation. 

'Some  excellent  papers  have  been  written  on  the  new 
requirements  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  See  articles  by 
O.  H.  Judd  (Education,  Jan.,  1912,  Vol.  XXXII,  No.  5,  pp. 
266-277),  C.  R.  Mann  (Educational  Review,  Sept,  1911,  VoL 


40         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

One  of  the  first  institutions  of  higher  learn- 
ing that  not  merely  formulated  the  elective 
system  in  theory  but  put  it  into  actual  opera- 
tion, was  Stanford  University.  I  quote  these 
words  from  the  Stanford  catalogue:  **No  pre- 
scription other  than  English  will  be  made." 
The  catalogue  here  refers  to  the  entrance  re- 
quirements of  the  University. 

President  Emeritus  David  Starr  Jordan  in 
his  admirable  book  entitled,  **The  Care  and 
Culture  of  Men,''  maintains  that  **we  must  let 
the  student  have,  to  a  great  extent,  his  own 
way  as  to  what  his  studies  shall  be.  We  can 
see  that  he  does  his  work  well,  and  we  can  help 
hiTTi  in  many  ways,  but  the  direction  of  his 
efforts  must  in  the  end  rest  with  him.'' 

Many  of  the  most  progressive  school  men  to- 
day contend  that  as  soon  as  the  common 
branches  are  mastered  each  student  should  be 
given  the  privilege  of  selecting  his  own  studies, 
but  not  without  careful  advice  and  direction  by 
parents  and  teachers.    It  is  worse  than  useless, 

XLII,  No.  2,  pp.  186-191),  J.  R.  Angell   (School  Review, 
Sept.,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  No.  7,  pp,  489-497). 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    41 

it  is  claimed,  to  try  to  change  the  course  of  a 
student's  life  by  compelling  him  to  do  work 
which  he  knows  will  only  be  of  little  use  to 
him. 

High  school  authorities  everywhere  are  be- 
ginning to  recognize  the  truth  of  the  statement 
made  by  the  Committee  of  Nine  of  the  1911 
National  Education  Association  concerning  the 
most  effective  way  of  securing  good  work.  The 
Committee  maintained  that  the  school  must  take 
into  account  individual  differences  and  must 
emphasize  interest  rather  than  difficulty  as  a 
stimulant  to  the  student. 

Many  leading  educators  have  long  held  this 
yiew.  Dr.  Bolton  has  always  maintained  that 
interest  is  of  pre-eminent  and  fundamental 
importance,  ^  and  Dr.  Suzzallo  seems  to  be  of 
the  same  opinion,  for  he  says:  **Too  many  of 
the  able  and  willing  of  mind  are  only  half  en- 
grossed with  their  school  tasks  .  .  •  and  we  find 
that  many  children,  whom  we  have  considered 

°See  Dean  F.  E.  Bolton's  discussion  of  "Interest  and 
Education"  in  his  Principles  of  Education.  Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons,  1910. 


42         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

backward  or  perverse,  are  merely  bored  by  tHe 
unappealing  tasks  and  formalities  of  school 
life.  The  major  difficulty  with  our  schools  is 
that  they  have  not  adequately  enlisted  the  in- 
terests and  energies  of  children  in  school 
work."* 

Most  authorities  would  give  the  student  con- 
siderable freedom  in  selecting  his  studies  dur- 
ing later  adolescence.  Dr.  C.  W.  Eliot,  whose 
work  in  forwarding  the  ** elective  system''  in 
education  cannot  be  estimated,  says:  **The  saf- 
est guides  to  a  wise  choice  will  be  the  taste, 
incHnation  and  special  capacity  of  each  indi- 
vidual. ...  It  is  only  the  individual  youth  who 
can  select  that  course  of  study  which  will  most 
profit  him,  because  it  will  most  interest  him. 
The  very  fact  of  choice  goes  far  to  secure  the 
co-operation  of  his  will.  It  is  for  the  happi- 
ness of  the  individual  and  the  benefit  of  society 
alike  that  these  mental  diversities  should  be 
cultivated,  not  suppressed.    The  individual  en- 

«  See  the  editor's  introduction  to  John  Dewey's  monograph 
"Interest  and  Effort  in  Education."  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co., 
N.  Y. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    43 

joys  most  that  intellectnal  labor  for  which  hie 
is  most  fit;  and  society  is  best  served  when 
every  man's  peculiar  skill,  faculty,  or  aptitude 
is  developed  and  utilized  to  the  highest  possible 
degree."* 

Dr.  Eliot  thinks  our  courses  of  study  should 
be  flexible  for  the  younger  as  well  as  the  older 
students.  He  holds  that  **  every  individual 
child's  peculiar  gifts  and  powers  should  be 
discovered  early  and  developed  and  trained 
assiduously.  .  .  .  There  should  be  some  choice 
of  subjects  of  study  by  ten  years  of  age,  and 
much  variety  by  fifteen  years  of  age."  Many 
would  agree  with  him  when  he  says  that  there 
should  be  much  variety  by  fifteen  years  of  age 
but  very  few,  I  think,  believe  that  there  should 
be  any  choice  of  subjects  by  ten  years  of  age. 
And  again  does  he  not  go  to  the  extreme  when 
he  asserts  that  **in  the  ideal  democratic  school 
no  two  children  would  follow  the  same  course 
of  study  or  have  the  same  tasks,  except  that 
they  would  all  need  to  learn  the  use  of  the 

■C.  W.  EUot,  Educational  Reform,  pp.  134-136,  The  Cen- 
tury Company,  N.  Y.,  1901. 


U         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

elementary  tools  of  education :  reading,  writing 
and  ciphering/'® 

The  principle  of  election  has  reached  all 
classes  in  the  ** General  High  Schools''  in  Bos- 
ton, and  other  cities  are  rapidly  adopting  the 
plan.  The  reason  for  this,  nndoubtedly,  is  the 
'* growing  diversity  of  knowledge,"  the  break- 
ing down  of  the  *'old  ideal  of  the  scholar,"  the 
**need  of  specialization,"  the  necessity  of  civic, 
moral,  hygienic  and  vocational  instruction  and 
training,  and  the  '*  opening  of  educational  op- 
portunities to  all  the  people." 

In  the  Boise,  Idaho,  High  School,  all  studies, 
except  English  are  elective.  **The  students  are 
aided  in  selecting  a  unified  course  in  accordance 
with  their  needs."  ^  In  Boston  in  all  the  ** Gen- 
eral High  Schools"  the  only  required  studies 
are  English,  Hygiene  and  Physical  Training. 
Eecently,  a  year  of  science  has  been  added  to 
the  list  of  constants. 

More  than  one-half  of  the  studies  of  the 


•O.  W.  EUot,  Educational  Reform,  p.  262,  and  pp.  408-10. 
'  See  Stout,  The  High  School,  p.  312,  D.  O.  Heath  &  Co., 

1914. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    45 

'* General  Course"  of  the  Seattle  High  Schools 
are  elective.  The  required  studies  are  English 
(3  years),  mathematics  (1  year),  history  and 
civics  (2  years)  and  laboratory  science  (1  year). 
The  rest  of  the  studies  (16  credits)  are  elective. 
Each  pupil  must,  however,  earn  six  credits  (3 
years)  in  one  subject  other  than  English.  This 
is  an  excellent  course  for  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  designed.  It  is  meant  for  all  who  *^have 
not  reached  a  decision  as  to  their  future." 

It  might  be  added  that  although  this  course 
is  not  intended  to  prepare  students  for  college, 
many  upon  the  completion  of  it  would  be  al- 
lowed to  enter  Stanford  University  or  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  two  of  the  best  institutions 
in  the  United  States.  Both  belong  to  the 
Assocation  of  American  Universities.  English 
is  the  only  required  study  for  admission  to 
Stanford.  The  University  of  Chicago  demands 
three  years'  work  in  English,  a  major  of  three 
years  and  a  minor  of  two  years  in  any  of  the 
standard  high  school  subjects.  I  quote  from 
Dr.  J.  E.  AngelPs  article,  '*New  Eequirements 
for  Entrance  and  Graduation  at  the  Universitjr 


46         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

of  Cliicago'*  (School  Eeview,  Sept.,  1911,  page 
493):  **  English  is  the  only  subject  definitely, 
required  of  all  candidates  for  entrance  to  the 
University.  Apart  from  this,  the  two  most 
essential  demands  are :  first,  the  presentation  of 
two  groups  of  subjects,  of  which  at  least  three 
units  shall  be  offered  in  one  and  at  least  two 
units  in  the  other ;  and,  second,  the  requirement 
that  at  least  ten  of  the  fifteen  units  offered  shall 
be  the  familiar  academic  subjects/' 

Some  educators  favor  the  elective  principle 
for  colleges  but  not  for  high  schools.  They 
talk  of  ** laying  a  good  foundation.''  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Jordan,  **we  have  tried,  as  we  used 
to  say,  to  make  well  rounded  men,  men  who 
stand  four-square  to  every  wind  that  blows.'* 
But  he  says,  **This  is  a  training  better  fitted 
for  hitching-posts  or  windmills  than  for  men." ' 

Often  the  very  people  who  speak  of  *  laying 
a  good  foundation"  are  also  enthusiastic  ad- 
vocates of  *  thorough  mental  discipline"  for 
each  student  so  that  when  he  receives  his  di- 

» D.  S.  Jordan,  Care  and  Culture  of  Men,  p.  163,  Whitaker 
&  Ray  Co.,  1903. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    47 

ploma,  leaves  the  school,  and  goes  **out  in  the 
world,"  he  will  be  prepared  to  cope  with  any 
situation,  and  the  best  and  only  way,  they  say, 
*  ^  to  train  the  mind, ' '  for  this  purpose,  is  to  study 
the  foreign  languages  and  higher  mathematics. 
But  is  this  argument  sound?  Do  not  the  studies 
that  have  a  more  direct  bearing  on  the  conduct 
and  problems  of  life  ** train  the  mind"  quite  as 
well,  if  not  better  than  the  languages  and  mathe- 
matics! 

We  have  good  authority  to  answer  the  last 
question  in  the  affirmative,  for  Herbert  Spencer 
contends  that  knowledge  that  is  best  for  life 
is  also  best  for  development  of  power®  and  I 
am  sure  that  G.  Stanley  Hall  would  also  sup- 
port my  contention,  for  he  maintains  that  the 
**very  existence  of  any  such  thing"  as  a  ''gen- 
eralized type  of  ability  or  general  culture"  is 
**now  disputed  by  psychologists."  Then  he 
says  emphatically:  ''The  power  which  is  trained 
for  efficiency  in  one  direction  cannot  be  applied 

•See  Spencer's  Education,  p.  74,  D.  Appleton  Co.,  N.  T. 
Also  see  Graves,  Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries,  pp. 
878-279,  MacmUlan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1912. 


48         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

in  any  other  without  very  great  abatement  and 
loss,  if  indeed  it  can  be  at  all."  " 

If  the  positions  held  by  Herbert  Spencer  and 
G.  Stanley  Hall  be  correct,  and  if  Professor 
Home's  contention"  that  mental  discipline 
gained  in  one  field  will  aid  in  another  just  in  so 
far  as  the  two  subjects  are  similar,  be  sound, 
ought  not  the  pupil  study  subjects  in  which  he 
has  a  genuiQe  interest  or  work  that  will  be  of 
more  use  to  hiTn  in  later  life  instead  of  being 
forced  to  take  Latin,  advanced  algebra*^  or 
solid  geometry?"  Should  not  the  student  be 
allowed  to  select,  with  assistance,  studies  in 
harmony  with  his  nature,  interests,  capacities, 
needs  and  aims  in  life?  But  some  contend  that 
many  high  school  students  are  not  greatly  in- 
terested in  anything  in  the  curriculum  and  do 
not  know  their  needs  ^*  and  aims  in  life.    Al- 

*°  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  653.    D.  Appleton  Co. 

"H.  H.  Home,  Psychological  Principles  of  Education, 
p.  71,  Macmillian  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1907. 

"  See  Dr.  M.  V.  O' Shea's  Editorial  Comments  in  the  May, 
(1916),  issue  of  the  Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education. 

"See  David  Snedden's  article,  "What  of  Liberal  Educa- 
tion."   Atlantic  Monthly,  Jan.,  1912,  Vol.  CIX,  pp.  111-117. 

"Dr.  E.  O.  HoUand  maintains  that  "the  schoolmaster 


^ 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    49 

though  this  situation  presents  a  difficult  prob- 
lem, could  not  the  secondary  school  do  much 
more  than  it  is  now  doing  for  this  class  of 
students!  If  a  student  does  not  know  his 
dominant  interests,  capabilities  and  needs,  the 
teachers  should  endeavor  to  discover  them,  and 
I  believe  this  could  be  done  by  means  of  short 
general  courses  in  various  subjects. 

After  discussing  this  problem  from  every 
possible  standpoint  at  the  meeting  of  the  N.  E. 
A.  in  1911,  it  was  the  consensus  of  opinion  of 
the  committee  on  secondary  education  that  *Hhe 
high  school  period  is  the  testing  time,  the  time 
I  for  trying  out  different  powers,  the  time  for 
forming  life  purposes. .  .  .''  further,  the  com- 
mittee maintained  that  '*in  high  school  the  boy 
or  girl  may  very  properly  make  a  start  along 

must  go  out  into  the  industrial  life  of  a  community  and 
learn  at  first  hand  what  is  expected  of  the  young  people 
when  they  leave  the  school.  Then  he  must  have  sufficient 
courage  and  initiative  to  do  two  things:  first,  make  such 
changes  in  the  course  of  study  as  wiU  give  better  prepara- 
tion to  the  children  who  must  enter  the  vocations  at  an 
early  age;  and,  second,  make  possible  for  any  child  to 
continue  iminterruptedly  his  course  through  the  grades, 
the  high  school,  and  the  university."  (Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1913, 
pp.  711-712). 


GO         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

the  line  of  his  chosen  vocation,  but  final  choice 
should  not  be  forced  upon  him  at  the  beginning 
of  that  career.  If  he  makes  a  provisional  choice 
early  in  the  course  there  should  be  ample  op- 
portunity for  adjustment  later  in  the  high 
school."" 

In  a  classic  on  election  in  education  we  find 
these  words:  **At  every  turn  the  elective  sys- 
tem has  met  a  *  stone  wall  of  conservatism.' 
For  one  educated  under  the  old  prescribed 
regime  and  indoctrined  with  the  venerable  idea 
of  what  constitutes  a  liberal  education,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  eliminate  the  personal  equation.  .  .  . 
Scholars  cling  naturally  to  old  ideas,  old  ideals, 
old  methods;  no  body  of  men  is  more  averse 
to  change.  In  business  such  men  fail,  driven 
to  the  wall  by  competition  with  those  who  are 
ready  to  adopt  new  methods.  But  education 
fosters  conservatism;  as  a  rule,  men  prefer  to 
teach  the  things  they  were  taught,  and  to  teach 
them  in  the  same  way.  So  the  mistakes  of 
fathers  are  visited  upon  children  and  upon 

"Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1911,  p.  560. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    51 

children's  children  unto  how  many  generations 
only  the  history  of  education  can  tell.'' 

Someone  has  said  that  the  opponents  of  the 
elective  system  free  its  advocates  from  the  need 
of  any  discussion  of  relative  value  of  studies; 
the  reason  is  plain — the  final  incontestable  rea- 
son why  no  high  school  studies  can  be  sensibly 
prescribed  for  all — the  opponents  of  free  choice 
are  utterly  unable  to  agree  among  themselves 
as  to  what  the  prescribed  subjects  should  be. 
There  is  much  truth  in  this  argument,  but  it  is 
not  as  forceful  to-day  as  it  was  a  decade  ago, 
for  educators  are  beginning  to  agree  on  at  least 
three  studies  that  ought  to  be  required.  These 
are  discussed  in  the  following  chapters. 

Prior  to  1910  I  examined  the  catalogues  of 
nearly  all  of  the  colleges  and  universities  in 
the  Northwest,  and  no  two  agreed  as  to  the 
required  work  for  entrance  to  the  Freshman 
class  in  the  B.  A.  course.  So  we  can  readily 
see  that  it  depends  on  the  individual  or  group 
of  individuals,  who  make  the  lists  of  required 
studies — ^it  depends  absolutely  upon  what  they 


52         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

consider  important  and  positively  necessary 
for  a  **good  foundation." 

An  authority  writing  on  the  subject  asks  this 
question:  **When  there  are  not  a  half-dozen 
high  schools  in  the  entire  country,  under 
separate  management,  with  identical  courses  of 
study,  is  it  not  preposterous  to  maintain  that 
there  is  a  vital,  fixed  interrelation  and  one 
natural  sequence  of  subjects  T'  One  group  of 
educators  says :  **So  in  a  program,  much  should 
be  insisted  on,''  and  they  insist  on  one  program. 
Another  says :  *' All  studies  should  be  required/' 
and  they  insist  on  another  program. 

So  much  for  prescription  of  courses.  Let  us 
speak  now  of  the  positive  advantages  of  the 
elective  system.  In  the  first  place,  the  elective 
plan  will  attract  more  grammar  school  grad- 
uates to  the  high  school  and  it  will  hold  them 
in  school  longer  than  if  the  courses  were 
prescribed.  This  is  something  that  is  ardently 
to  be  desired  for  the  percentage  of  population 
that  secure  a  high  school  education  should  be 
increased. 

A  recent  report  of  the  United  States  Com- 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    53 

missioner  of  Education  shows  that  ahont  seven 
per  cent  of  the  students  of  the  country  are  in 
secondary  schools.  Just  think  of  it,  only  seven 
per  cent!  Surely  something  should  be  done  to 
attract  more  eighth  grade  graduates  to  the  high 
schools  of  our  country.  This  can  be  done  by 
introducing  the  elective  system  into  high  schools 
and  to  prove  this  statement  let  us  refer  to  the 
high  school  at  Galesburg,  Illinois. 

**Two  years  after  the  introduction  of  the  new 
system,  the  school  building  had  to  be  more  than 
doubled  to  accommodate  the  applicants  for  ad- 
mission. Formerly  one  pupil  out  of  eleven  in 
the  lower  grades  entered  the  high  school,  two 
years  later,  one  out  of  five  entered  high  school." 
Many  of  the  students  would  not  have  continued 
in  school  had  they  not  been  permitted  to  elect  a 
course  which  seemed  to  them  suited  to  their 
needs. " 

''If  we  should  admit  that  the  studies  that 
these  pupils  selected  did  not  do  them  as  much 

"See  the  History  of  the  Galesburg  Schools.  In  this 
work  the  author,  Dr.  Steele,  who  is  superintendent,  shows 
definitely  and  conclusively  that  the  elective  system  increases 
attendance. 


64         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

good  as  some  that  might  have  been  prescribed, 
yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  these  elective 
studies  did  them  more  good  than  remaining  out 
of  school  entirely  would  have  done,*' 

Moreover,  tlie  elective  plan  has  a  good  effect 
on  teachers.  It  gets  students  and  teachers  to- 
gether who  are  vitally  interested  in  the  same 
subject.  In  this  way  a  teacher  can  see  the 
effect  of  his  work.  It  also  gives  the  scEool  a; 
chance  to  rid  itself  of  inefficient  teachers.  Under 
the  prescribed  plan  pupils  are  forced  to  go  to 
teachers  who  are  not  interesting — ^teachers  who 
are  teachers  only  in  name — and  often  are  in- 
tolerant, sluggish  and  unprogressive.  The 
elective  system  tends  to  force  such  persons  to 
become  better  teachers  or  leave  the  profession. 

We  are  now  going  to  introduce  an  argument 
which  seems  to  be  most  essential  It  is  this: 
The  elective  system  arouses  the  interest  and 
willingness  of  the  student  and  fills  him  with  en- 
thusiasm to  do  better  work.  It  also  makes  him 
feel  his  responsibility  as  no  other  system  can 
do.  If  a  person  selects  a  certain  study  because 
he  likes  the  subject  and  the  teacher,  he  studies 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    65 

harder  and  he  desires  to  learn  more  than  if 
that  study  were  prescribed.  Furthermore,  the 
elective  plan  makes  the  student  conscious  of 
what  he  is  doing,  trains  him  in  independent 
choice,  and  in  this  way  makes  him  feel  his  own 
individual  responsibility. 

The  stock  argument  of  the  opponents  of  the 
elective  system,  is  that  there  are  some  students 
who,  from  pure  laziness,  select  only  the  easiest 
studies  and  go  through  school  with  the  very 
easiest  work  possible.  **But  this  is  no  new 
thing,  and  it  is  not  for  such  students  that  the 
school  exists.  The  school  should  not  obstruct 
the  work  of  its  earnest  students  to  keep  its 
idlers  and  sneaks  from  wasting  their  useless 
time.''  As  Dr.  Angell  has  said:  *^No  plan  will 
make  the  school  career  of  lazy  students  bril- 
liant. The  work  should  be  organized  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  earnest  and  aspiring,  rather 
than  the  infirmities  and  defects  of  the  indolent/' 

But,  Dr.  Jordan  contends  that  most  students, 
as  a  matter  of  fact  do  not  select  the  easiest 
studies,  as  statistics  certainly  show.  He  says 
further,  **It  is  simple  nonsense  to  call  any 


56         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

study  easy,  if  pursued  in  a  serious  manner  for 
a  serious  purpose.  If  any  subject  draws  to  it- 
self the  idlers  solely  because  it  is  easy,  the  fault 
lies  with  the  teacher.  The  success  of  the  elec- 
tive system,  as  of  any  other  system,  demands 
the  removal  of  inefficient  teachers.  The  elective 
system  can  never  wholly  succeed  unless  each 
teacher  has  the  power  and  the  will  to  enforce 
good  work  or  to  remove  from  his  classes  all 
idle  or  inefficient  students.  The  average  course, 
however,  as  chosen  by  the  students  themselves, 
is  as  capable  of  serious  defense  as  the  average 
established  course  evolved  from  the  pulling  and 
hauling  and  patching  and  fitting  of  the  average 
faculty.''" 

Dr.  C.  W.  Eliot  asks  this  pertinent  question : 
^*What  becomes  of  the  careless,  indifferent, 
lazy  boys  who  have  no  bent  or  ambition  of  any 
sortf  and  answers  it  by  saying:  *^What  be- 
comes of  such  boys  under  the  uniform  com- 
pulsory system?.  .  .  It  really  does  not  make 
much  difference  what  these  unawakened  minds 

"  Dr.  O.  W.  Eliot  is  of  the  same  opinion.    See  his  Educa- 
tional Reform,  p.  138.    Century  Co.,  New  York,  1901. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  ELECTION  IN  EDUCATION    57 

dawdle  with.  There  is,  however,  much  more 
chance  that  such  young  men  will  get  roused 
from  their  lethargy  under  an  elective  system 
than  under  a  required."" 

**But  you  may  say:  *  Would  you  let  a  student 
graduate  ignorant  of  Chemistry,  of  Latin,  of 
Logic,  of  Botany?'  ''  *'Well,  yes,"  says  Dr. 
Jordan,  *4f  superficiality  in  everything  is  the 
alternative.  It  is  well  for  a  scholar  to  know 
something  of  each  of  these  and  of  each  of  the 
subjects  in  the  most  extended  curriculum.  But 
he  purchases  this  knowledge  too  dearly  if  he 
buys  it  at  the  expense  of  thoroughness  in  some 
line  of  study  in  which  a  real  interest  has  been 
awakened." 

Although  those  who  advocate  the  almost 
purely  elective  system  seem  to  be  able  to  meet 
the  arguments  of  their  opponents,  nevertheless, 
it  seems  to  me,  it  is  not  a  question  of  '*free 
election"  or  absolute  "prescription,"  but  it  is 
rather  what  studies  should  be  chosen  by  each 
student,  for  to-day  it  is  recognized  that  each 
person  needs  an  education  fitted  to  his  indi- 

**  Educational  Reform,  p.  140. 


68         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESENCE 

vidual  needs.  If  any  studies  should  be  pre- 
scribed, should  they  not  be  in  the  field  of  the 
humanities,  rather  than  in  the  field  of  mathe- 
matics and  the  classiest  For  instance,  does  it 
not  seem  reasonable  that  all  students  should 
be  required  to  study,  besides  English,  some  of 
the  essential  facts  of  the  history  of  the  world 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present,  and  be- 
sides, would  it  not  be  desirable  to  advise  all 
to  study  at  least  the  elementary  problems  in 
ethics,  civics,  hygiene,  sociology,  economics,  and 
psychology? 


CHAPTER  IV: 

CHANGES   PEOPOSED    IN    SECONDARY   EDUCATION 

By  an  examination  of  some  of  the  most  pro- 
gressive high  schools  of  the  United  States,  we 
find  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  provide  not 
merely  for  the  vocational  needs  of  their  stu- 
dents, but  also  for  the  civic,  social  and  cultural 
needs  as  well.  And  it  is  right  that  it  should 
be  thus,  for  the  aim  of  the  modern  high  school 
should  be  to  provide  instruction  tending  to 
produce  cultured,  self-supi>orting,  self-respect- 
ing, efficient  members  of  society. 

But  how  is  this  to  be  done?  Partly  by  a  wise 
selection  of  subject  matter.  Then  the  question 
arises:  What  studies  should  be  prescribed  for 
all  students.  The  answer  must  be,  the  studies 
that  are  recognized  as  supremely  useful  to  all. 
But  what  are  the  specific  studies? 


60         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

Constants 

The  required  subjects  should  be  English, 
some  phases  of  the  history  of  civilization,  and 
modern  civic  and  social  problems,  and  the 

Electives 

i.e.,  the  rest  of  the  studies,  will  depend  absolutely 
upon  the  student's  aptitudes,  interests,  needs 
and  aims  in  life.  For  instance,  if  the  student 
is  reasonably  sure  that  he  will  go  to  college, 
normal,  or  technical  school,  his  electives  should 
be  chosen  with  this  particular  aim  clearly  in 
view.  If  the  student  intends  to  go  into  busi- 
ness, he  should  take  the  commercial  course.  If 
he  wishes  to  learn  a  trade,  of  course  he  will 
select  industrial  subjects,  and  take  some  of  his 
work  in  a  factory  or  in  a  shop  as  provided  for 
by  the  part-time  schools.  *  If  he  does  not  know 
what  course  to  enter,  the  teachers  should  try 
to  discover  the  student's  dominant  interests 

*The  Fitchburg  Plan.  See  H.  Schneider,  Partial  Time 
Trade  Schools,  Annals  of  Am.  Acad,  of  Pol.  &  S.S.,  1909, 
Volume  XXXIII,  pp.  50-55.  See  also  J.  S.  Taylor,  Handbook 
of  Vocational  Education,  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1914. 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      61 

and  capabilities  by  means  of  short  courses  in 
various  subjects. 

Although  not  exclusively,  a  large  part  of  the 
school  time  should  be  devoted  to  vocational 
education  or  in  discovering  vocational  aptitudes. 
The  vocational  instruction,  however,  will  not 
crowd  out  the  so-called  cultural  subjects.  The 
instruction  will  be  both  cultural  and  vocational. 
But  this  is  not  all.  It  will  develop  social  effi- 
ciency. It  will  help  all  to  be  better  citizens  and 
will  aid  each  individual  to  enjoy  life  irrespec- 
tive of  vocation. 

In  the  ideal  high  school  the  pupils,  parents, 
and  teachers  working  together  will  select  the 
student's  program.  This  is  now  done  in 
Boston  and  Seattle.  There  is  no  uniform 
** course"  for  all  individuals,  but  each  student's 
nature,  interests,  and  plans  for  the  future  are 
fully  recognized  and  the  studies  are  selected 
with  these  things  in  mind.  The  aim  is  to  de- 
velop the  pupil's  interests  and  aptitudes.  The 
largest  liberty  of  choice  is  given  to  each  student. 
The  teachers  and  parents  advise,  the  students 
choose,  and  the  flexibility  of  the  course  makes 


62         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

it  possible  for  every  individual,  no  matter  what 
his  talent  may  be,  to  receive  the  proper  educa- 
tion and  culture. 

The  ** General  High  Schools"  of  Boston  and 
the  general  courses  of  the  Seattle  High  Schools 
are  especially  adapted  to  the  nature  and  needs 
of  adolescents.  Aside  from  a  very  few  re- 
quired studies,  each  student's  program  depends 
solely  upon  his  dominant  interests  and  capaci- 
ties. The  characteristic  features  are  (1)  the 
limited  elective  system  and  (2)  the  flexibility 
of  the  courses  of  study.  The  required  studies — 
English,  Civics,  and  History — give  some  of  the 
knowledge  and  training  every  American  citizen 
should  receive,  while  the  electives  give  each  in- 
dividual an  opportunity  to  discover  and  de- 
velop his  dominant  interests,  which  simply 
means  each  student  has  an  opportunity  to  stress 
the  subjects  that  will  be  of  use  later  and  to 
study  problems  closely  related  to  our  social, 
civic,  and  industrial  life.  The  program  is 
entirely  flexible  and  offers  numerous  oppor- 
tunities for  a  change  of  course  as  a  student's 
inclinations  are  modified  or  his  tendencies  are 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      63 

developed.  Thus  the  individual  is  not  made  to 
fit  the  education,  but  the  education  is  made  to 
fit  the  individual. 

Electives  and  Constants 

It  devolves  upon  the  modem  high  school  to 
teach  not  merely  those  subjects  that  give  ** cul- 
ture" but  it  must  give,  as  the  Fitchburg  schools 
do,  instruction  that  will  lead  the  student  to  be- 
come a  self-supporting  citizen  in  the  com- 
munity. 

Appropriate  vocational  training  will  be  pro- 
vided to  meet  the  capacities,  interests  and  needs 
of  all  classes  of  students.  Aside  from  the  re- 
quired studies — English,  the  history  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  civic  and  social  problems — all  work 
will  depend  absolutely  upon  the  individual 
student's  natural  aptitudes,  capacities,  inter- 
ests, needs  and  aims  in  life.  His  interests  and 
capacities  will,  of  course,  largely  determine  his 
needs  or  aims  in  life. 

There  are,  it  is  true,  many  pupils  in  the  high 
school  who  are  in  the  finding  process,  and  who 


M        EDUCATION  DtJRING  ADOLESCENCE 

do  not  need  or  wish  to  select  their  future  work. 
It  is  highly  desirable  that  there  be  providec"  the 
best  possible  instruction  in  subjects  that  are 
likely  to  find  the  widest  range  of  application 
in  adult  life.  The  vocational  instruction  and 
the  elective  studies  together  serve  an  excellent 
purpose  in  enabling  the  student  to  discover  his 
tastes,  ability,  interests  and  in  this  way  he  is 
able  to  **fiiid  himself." 

In  having  different  courses  for  different 
students  as  many  high  schools  have,  it  is  recog- 
nized that  what  the  Committee  of  Nine  of  the 
iNational  Education  Association  in  1911  said  is 
true,  that  **hard  work  is  to  be  secured  not  by 
insistence  upon  uniformity  of  tastes  and  in- 
terests, but  by  the  encouragement  of  special 
effort  along  lines  that  appeal  to  the  individ- 
ual/'^ Dr.  W.  H.  Burnham  says  that  *Hhe 
child's  mind  can  no  more  give  attention  to  the 
absolutely  uninteresting  than  the  eye  can  per- 
ceive the  ultra-violet  rays  of  the  spectrum." 

The  work  of  the  high  school  should  be  spent 
mostly  in  developing  dominant  interests  and 

»Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1911,  p.  560. 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      05 

should  stress  instruction  tending  toward  the 
professional,  industrial,  business,  or  agricul- 
tural career  in  which  the  student  is  most  in- 
terested. But  the  high  school  has  another  dis- 
tinct function  aside  from  the  vocational.  It 
must  be  deeply  concerned  not  only  in  prepar- 
ing for  a  vocation,  but  it  must  do  its  best  to  give 
some  general  culture  and  prepare  for  efficient 
citizenship. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  give  the  reasons 
why  all  should  study  English,  for  I  know  of  no 
first-class  high  school  anywhere  that  does  not 
require  at  least  two  or  three  years  of  every 
student  who  is  to  graduate.  And  when  I  men- 
tioned on  page  60  that  history  too  should  be 
required  of  all  I  was  not  stating  a  new  view, 
for  this  study  is  already  prescribed  in  the 
great  majority  of  high  schools  throughout  the 
country.' 

Although  the  study  of  modern  civic  and  social 
problems  is  not  a  required  subject  in  every 
secondary  school,  some  of  the  most  progressive 

■For  justification  of  prescribing  liistory  we  refer  to 
Chapter  VII  of  this  book. 


66         EDUCATION  DUlirNG  ADOLESCENCE 

educators  to-day  think  it  should  be.  President 
Nicholas  M.  Butler  of  Columbia  University, 
says:  **The  public  education  of  a  great  demo- 
cratic people  has  other  aims  to  fulfill  than  the 
extension  of  scientific  knowledge  or  the  develop- 
ment of  literary  culture.  It  must  prepare  for 
intelligent  citizenship."  He  says  further,  **We 
can  leave  questions  as  to  the  undulatory  theory 
of  light  and  as  to  Grimm's  and  Verner 'slaws  to 
the  specialist,  but  we  may  not  do  the  same  with 
questions  as  to  production  and  exchange,  as  to 
monetary  policy  and  taxation.  The  course  of 
study  is  not  liberal,  in  this  country,  that  does 
not  recognize  these  facts  and  emphasize  eco- 
nomics as  it  deserves." 

We  should  bear  in  mind  that  most  students 
who  enter  high  school  never  go  to  college,  but 
within  a  few  years  become  voters  and  have  all 
the  responsibilities  of  citizenship  to  discharge. 
In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  essential  that  the 
students  should  be  required  to  study  practical 
problems  pertaining  to  society  and  government. 
They  may  not  make  great  progress  in  the  study 
of  modern  problems,  but  a  little  knowledge  may 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      67 

stimnlate  them  to  acquire  more,  and  it  will  cer- 
tainly give  them  a  deeper  interest  in  the  wel- 
fare of  their  country  and  the  well-being  of  their 
fellow  citizens. 

American  statesmen  always  have  in  the  past 
urged  what  many  sociologists  and  educators 
are  to-day  vigorously  contending,  that  because 
of  our  form  of  government,  the  people  must 
have  knowledge  concerning  political  affairs. 
This  contention  is  sound  at  present  even  more 
so  than  it  was  in  the  past  because  of  the  wide- 
spread adoption  of  the  *' Initiative  and  Eefer- 
endum. ' '  Direct  legislation  by  the  people  needs 
not  only  more  political,  but  social  and  economic 
knowledge. 

If  the  people  become  legislators  or  law-makers 
as  they  do  under  the  Initiative  and  Eef  erendum, 
they  must  be  enlightened  in  the  practical 
present-day  problems  pertaining  to  just  legisla- 
tion. It  is  absurd  to  think  that  it  is  possible  to 
give  an  intelligent  decision  upon  the  laws  that 
come  before  the  people  without  social,  political, 
and  economic  knowledge. 

In  answer  to  this  contention  some  maintain 


es         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

tHat  the  Initiative  and  Referendum  may  not  be 
adopted  in  all  the  states.  But  even  if  this  should 
be  the  ease,  the  argument  is  still  forceful,  as 
these  devices  of  government  are  already  in  full 
operation  in  nearly  all  municipalities  through- 
out the  country.  Furthermore,  such  knowledge 
is  needed  to  know  whether  or  not  the  platforms 
of  the  various  political  parties  are  just,  reason- 
able and  otherwise  desirable. 

In  order  for  the  student  **to  work"  as  Dr. 
Hanus  says,  "for  the  continuous  improvement 
and  happiness  of  his  race,  his  nation,  and  his» 
own  immediate  community''  the  student  must 
have  social  knowledge ;  he  must  have  knowledge 
concerning  the  actual  conditions,  he  must  study 
the  evils  as  well  as  the  proposed  remedies,  and 
these  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  all  should 
study  the  social  sciences. 

We  sincerely  hope  it  will  not  be  long  before 
the  high  schools  everywhere  will  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  some  of  the  secondary  schools  of  the 
Middle  West  which  lay  great  stress  on,  not  only 
civic  and  social  instruction,  but  on  English 
literature   and   English   expression,   and   the 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      69 

history  of  civilization.  This  is  ardently  to  be 
desired,  for  an  education  must  not  only  help  to 
make  the  individual  self-supporting,  but  it  must 
give  culture  and  prepare  the  student  for  social 
service,  and  besides,  it  ought  to  train,  as  Dr. 
Eliot  says,  **some  permanent  capacity  for 
productiveness  or  enjoyment  and  aid  in  the 
development  of  character." 

Some  attention  could  be  devoted  to  civic  and 
social  questions  along  with  the  course  in  his- 
tory, but  perhaps  to  a  greater  extent  could  they 
be  emphasized  in  connection  with  the  course  in 
English  literature  and  English  expression.  In- 
stead of  reading  all  of  the  ''English  Classics'' 
now  required,  some  books  might  be  studied 
dealing  with  the  questions  just  mentioned.  The 
students  in  their  English  course  might,  for  ex- 
ample, study  Towne's  Social  Problems  or  Ell- 
wood's  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems. 
Many  books  are  appearing  now  like  these  which 
deal  with  current  problems  in  a  practical  and 
interesting  manner.  Such  work  would  vitalize 
the  high  school  English  course,  and  in  addition 
it  would  give  the  students  valuable  information. 


70         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

Since  physical  training  is  not  one  of  the 
formal  studies,  we  did  not  include  it  in  the 
small  group  of  constants.  Nevertheless,  we 
believe  it  is  extremely  important  for  all,  and 
should  be  *  ^fostered  not  merely  by  gymnastic 
exercises  and  lectures  on  hygiene,  but  by  a  face 
to  face  study  of,  and  experience  with,  the  con- 
ditions of  wholesome  living,''  *  and  this  is  more 
important  than  any  one  or  all  of  the  studies 
mentioned  as  required,  for  **the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  may  be  deferred,  but  the  demands 
of  physical  development  cannot  wait."  This 
is  in  harmony  with  common  sense  and  an 
eminent  authority''  who  states  further  that 
''among  the  habits  distinctly  conducive  to 
health  must  be  reckoned  active  interests  in 
nature,  in  outdoor  sports,  in  varied  forms  of 
artistic  activity,  iu  social  life,  and  social  in- 
stitutions.'' 

Of  course,  we  realize  that  in  all  knowledge 

•David  Snedden. 

"This  view  is  held  by  President  HaU's  most  intimate 
coUaborator,  Dr.  W.  H.  Burnham,  in  whom  America  has 
a  briUiant  exponent  of  scientific  mental  hygiene.  See  his 
contributions  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education.  Also 
School  Review,  Dec,  1897,  pp.  652-666. 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      71 

there  is  profit,  and  the  wider  the  student's 
learning  the  better  prepared  he  will  be  to  do 
his  best  work,  and  that  while  the  student  must 
consider  first  his  actual  and  immediate  voca- 
tional needs,  we  should  never  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  he  should  strive  to  secure  some  general 
culture,  and  become  as  nearly  as  possible  so- 
cially efficient.  However,  we  should  bear  in 
mind  that  the  course  of  study  will  fulfill  these 
aims  but  imperfectly  and  that  other  knowledge 
and  other  culture  are  desirable,  not  only  in  a 
general  way  but  also  as  bearing  directly  upon 
his  success  in  life. 

Intelligent  people  everywhere  recognize  the 
importance  of  personal  culture  and  social  effi- 
ciency, but  how  are  they  to  be  attained!  In 
nearly  every  important  meeting  of  high  school 
men  this  question  is  discussed:  What  studies 
are  best  for  these  purposes?  May  the  student 
become  cultured  and  socially  efficient  by  study- 
ing the  foreign  languages  and  mathematics,  or 
by  receiving  instruction  in  the  branches  having 
a  direct  bearing  on  the  conduct  and  problems 
of  life!    Neither,  it  is  generally  conceded  will 


72         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

necessarily  make  a  person  cultured  and  socially 
efficient,  but  according  to  a  large  and  increas-* 
ing  number  of  eminent  authorities,  literature, 
history,  and  modem  civic  and  social  problems 
are  undoubtedly  some  of  the  chief  sources. 

While  the  classics,  other  foreign  languages, 
and  mathematics  may  be  important  to  some 
students  for  some  purposes,  personal  culture 
and  social  efficiency  (which  will,  broadly  speak- 
ing, contribute,  both  directly  and  indirectly,  to 
the  individual's  vocational  efficiency)  may  be 
promoted  better  by  developing  a  permanent  in- 
terest in  reading  the  best  literature  and  in 
studying  modern  civic  and  social  problems  and 
the  essential  facts  of  the  history  of  civilization. 

Dr.  Chas.  W.  Eliot,  who  for  forty  years  was 
President  of  Harvard  University,  in  his 
monograph  entitled  Education  for  Efficiency 
and  The  New  Definition  of  the  Cultivated  Man, 
after  speaking  of  the  increased  importance  of 
character  and  the  power  of  literary  apprecia- 
tion and  expression  says:  **The  next  great  ele- 
ment in  cultivation  ...  is  acquaintance  with 
some  part  of  the  store  of  knowledge  which  hu- 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDiiRY  EDUCATION      73 

manity  in  its  progress  from  barbarism  has 
acquired  and  laid  up.  This  is  the  prodigous 
store  of  recorded,  rationalized,  and  systema- 
tized discoveries,  experiences,  and  ideas.  .  .  . 
It  is  too  vast  for  any  man  to  master,  though 
he  had  a  hundred  lives  instead  of  one ;  and  its 
growth  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  greater 
than  in  all  the  thirty  preceding  centuries  put 
together.  In  the  eighteenth  century  a  diligent 
student  with  quick  powers  of  apprehension  and 
a  strong  memory  need  not  have  despaired  of 
mastering  a  large  fraction  of  this  store  of 
knowledge.  Long  before  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  such  a  task  had  become  impos- 
sible. Culture,  therefore,  can  no  longer  imply 
a  knowledge  of  everything — ^not  even  a  little 
knowledge  of  everything.  It  must  be  content 
with  general  knowledge  of  some  things,  and  a 
real  mastery  of  some  small  portion  of  the  hu- 
man store.  Here  is  a  profound  modification  of 
the  idea  of  cultivation  which  the  nineteenth 
century  has  brought  about." 

Dr.  Eliot  then  asks  this  question:  ''What 
portion  or  portions  of  the  infinite  human  stores 


n         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

are  most  proper  to  the  cultivated  manT'  and 
answers  it  by  saying:  ** Those  which  enable  him, 
with  his  individual  personal  qualities  to  deal 
best  and  sympathize  most  with  nature  and  with 
other  human  beings.  It  is  here  that  the  pas- 
sion for  service  must  fuse  with  the  passion  for 
knowledge." 

Now  does  it  not  seem  almost  self  evident  that 
the  student  who  has  acquainted  himself  with 
English  literature,  the  history  of  civilization, 
and  practical  problems  in  civics,  economics  and 
sociology,  **has  a  better  chance  of  fusing  the 
passion  for  knowledge  with  the  passion  for  do- 
ing good*'  than  the  student  who  has  neglected 
these  studies! 

From  the  standpoint  of  social  service,  the 
study  of  these  branches  equips  the  student,  as 
nothing  else  can,  academically,  for  an  active, 
useful,  earnest  and  profitable  life,  and  anything 
like  a  mastery  of  these  studies  brings  with  it 
a  high  degree  of  culture,  according  to  the  defi- 
nition formulated  by  Dr.  Eliot. 

To  sum  up:  If  a  student  expects  to  enter  a 
profession  he  should  take  studies  bearing  in 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      75 

some  way  on  that  particular  profession,  but  in 
addition  he  should  study  English  literature  and 
expression,  some  phases  of  the  history  of  civil- 
ization, and  at  least  a  few  practical  problems 
in  sociology  and  government. 

If  the  student  is  interested  in  agriculture  and 
intends  to  become  a  farmer  obviously  he  should 
take  the  agricultural  course.  But  although  he 
intends  to  be  a  farmer  he  must  assume  the 
'  duties  of  citizenship,  and  herein  lies  the  reason 
for  studying  the  subjects  I  have  just  mentioned. 

If  the  student  intends  to  become  a  merchant 
he  should  take  the  business  or  commercial 
course;  but  he  too  should  study  the  subjects 
that  are  regarded  as  useful  to  all,  for  the 
merchant  like  the  farmer  has  to  discharge  the 
duties  of  citizenship. 

If  the  student  in  high  school  decides  to  learn 
a  trade,  of  course  he  will  enter  one  of  the  in- 
dustrial courses.  So  we  might  go  on  naming 
courses,  but  the  real  point  is  simply  this :  The 
course  for  each  individual  will  depend  exclu- 
sively upon  the  student's  interests,  capabilities, 
needs  and  aims  in  life.    But  no  matter  what 


^6    EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

his  interests  and  capacities  are ;  no  matter  what 
his  needs  and  aims  in  life  may  be;  no  matter 
what  trade  or  profession  he  may  enter;  no  mat- 
ter what  vocation  he  may  pursue ;  he  must  be- 
come a  self-respecting  citizen;  he  must  be 
trained  in  the  work  of  genuine  citizenship ;  and 
herein  lies  the  reason  for  requiring  all  to  study 
English  literature  and  expression,  the  history 
of  civilization,  and  practical  problems  in 
sociology  and  government. 

It  is  evident  that  not  only  social  efficiency  or 
citizenship,  but  also  general  culture  demands 
that  instruction  in  these  branches  be  required. 
These  subjects  have  cultural  value  in  them- 
selves and  practical  worth  for  life.  The  reason 
why  they  should  be  taught  to  everybody  is  be- 
cause they  are  supremely  useful  to  everybody. 
They  will  not  only  contribute  to  each  citizen's 
usefulness  but  also  to  each  citizen's  happiness 
regardless  of  his  probable  vocation.  These 
studies  prove  their  worth  and  justify  them- 
selves by  their  fruits. 

Now  let  us  state  our  general  conclusion  as 
concisely  as  possible.    In  order  to  be  self -sup- 


CHANGES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      77 

porting,  each  individual  should  take  studies 
bearing  either  directly  or  indirectly  on  some 
trade,  occupation,  or  profession.  But  no  mat- 
ter what  vocation  a  student  is  to  follow  he  must 
become  a  citizen,  and  should  be  trained  for 
genuine  citizenship,  which  necessitates  active 
participation  in  human  affairs,  and  it  is  also 
extremely  desirable  that  he  should  secure  some 
** general  culture.''  Therefore  every  pupil, 
sometime  during  the  high  school  course,  should 
be  required  to  pursue  three  studies  and  their 
correlates,  namely:  (1)  English  literature  and 
English  expression,  (2)  the  essential  facts  of 
the  history  of  civilization,  and  (3)  practical 
problems  pertaining  to  society  and  government. 
Many  other  studies  are  desirable,  interesting 
and  stimulating  and  what  they  should  be  will 
depend  solely  upon  the  nature,  interests  and 
capacities,  needs  and  aims  in  life  of  each  par- 
ticular student,  but  the  three  required  courses 
just  enumerated  are  absolutely  essential,  indis- 
pensable to  every  cultured,  socially  efficient 
citizen.  The  three  studies  were  selected  first, 
with  reference  to  the  knowledge  they  will  givej 


78         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

and  second,  with  reference  to  social  eflSciency, 
and  tlie  value  of  the  culture  their  mastery  will 
bring.  The  constants  will  help  to  make  the 
student  socially  efficient  and  **  self-respecting" 
while  the  electives  will  give  the  student  a 
chance  to  **find  himself"  and  an  opportunity 
to  stress  vocational  training  if  he  so  desires, 
thus  helping  him  to  become  vocationally  efficient 
and  therefore  ** self-supporting." 


CHAPTER  V 

REQUIRED  SUBJEC5TS:   THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

The  study  of  practical  problems  pertaining 
to  society^  and  government  will  not  only  tend 
to  make  one  cultured,  but  will  tend  to  make 
one  socially  efficient.  We  admit  that  in  all 
knowledge  there  is  some  culture,  but  the  culture 
obtained  in  studying  modern  problems  relating 
to  politics  and  sociology  is  of  a  kind  which  noth- 
ing else  can  claim  to  give,  while  the  practical 
use  of  such  a  course  is  by  no  means  small,  even 
if  we  confine  the  study  to  the  elementary  prob- 
lems and  measure  the  value  by  the  strictest  of 
utilitarian  rules.  Besides,  the  study  of  sociology 
and  government  will  help  one  to  get  the  most 
out  of  life,  not  only  by  contributing  to  the  en- 

» See  G.  W.  Bate,  An  Experiment  in  Teaching  a  Course  In 
Elementary  Sociology.     School  Review,  May,  1915. 

79 


80         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

joyment  of  leisure,  but  also  by  creating  both 
the  desire  and  ability  to  share  effectively  in 
making  others  better  and  happier.  This  study 
will  arouse  one's  interest,  and  will  give  one 
insight  into  our  municipal,  state,  and  national 
institutions,  our  political,  industrial,  commer- 
cial and  educational  affairs.  If  presented  in 
the  right  way,  it  will  help  any  person  to  work 
better  with  his  fellowmen  for  the  continuous 
improvement  and  happiness  of  his  race,  his  na- 
tion, and  his  own  immediate  community.  There 
are,  then,  two  important  things  that  work  in 
this  field  will  do  for  the  individual:  (1)  It 
will  help  him  to  enjoy  life  and  prepare  him 
for  duty,  and  (2)  it  will  give  him  a  desire  to 
participate  intelligently  in  the  world's  work 
and  to  render  genuine  social  service,  and  what 
else  can  the  study  of  society  and  government 
give  that  can  in  any  way  compare  with  the 
sincere  desire  to  have  even  a  small  share  in 
solving  some  of  the  problems  of  civilization! 

Dr.  Hall  *  maintains  that  '*the  one  word  now 
written  across  the  very  zenith  of  the  educa- 

» Educational  Problems,  II,  667. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     81 

tional  skies,  high  above  all  others,  is  the  word 
service.  This  is  coming  to  be,  as  it  should  be, 
the  supreme  goal  of  all  pedagogic  endeavor, 
the  standard  by  which  all  other  values  are 
measured.  It  includes  the  highest  of  all  duties. 
The  individual  is  an  end  to  himself  only  that 
and  in  so  far  as  he  may  be  a  means  of  helping 
his  fellow  men.  .  .  .  We  serve  God  best  by 
serving  mankind.  .  .  .  We  save  our  souls  most 
surely  by  saving  our  fellow  beings  to  the  best 
that  is  possible  in  this  life.  ...  It  is  those  that 
do  most  for  the  race  that  will  shine  as  the  stars 
forever  and  ever.  .  .  .  This,  indeed,  is  the  new 
religion  of  to-day,  which  lies  concealed  in  the 
old  and  is  now  standing  forth  revealed.  The 
hope  of  this  new  dispensation  is  the  most  preci- 
ous of  all  the  deepest  and  best  aspirations  of 
the  present,  and  its  progressive  realization  is 
the  purpose  of  all  modern  reforms.  Its  begin- 
ning in  this  direction  in  the  field  of  education 
is  so  full  of  the  hope  and  promise  of  better 
things.  .  .  .  that  we  cannot  lose  heart"  in  spite 
of  ineffective  pedagogic  agencies  for  teaching 
practical  problems  in  sociology  and  govern- 


82         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

ment.  **The  civilized  world  is  realiziog  as 
never  before  that  all  who  live  for  themselves 
live  in  vain.  The  very  best  thing  the  schools 
are  now  beginning  to  do  is  to  inculcate  some 
knowledge  of,  and  sympathy  with,  the  simple 
duties  of  civic  virtue,  which  is  the  prime  re- 
quisite of  a  good  social  order.  But  this  is  a 
hard  lesson  and  must  be  begun  early  and  taught 
late,  in  season  and  out  of  season.  The  cause 
of  civic  righteousness  is  so  vast  and  all-condi- 
tioning, especially  in  a  democracy,  that  it  often 
makes  feeble  and  untrained  minds  fanatics  who 
discredit  the  very  cause  they  would  advance; 
but  we  are  slowly  if  surely  leamiug  temperance 
and  moderation  and  are  finding  the  broad  mid- 
dle way  of  permanent  progress.  We  are  learn- 
ing that,  whether  in  history  or  romance,  the 
names  that  shine  with  the  fairest  and  brightest 
light  and  last  longest  are  those  that  have  done 
most  service.  The  great  moments  in  great  lives 
are  those  when  the  supreme  choice  is  to  be  made 
between  self  and  the  welfare  of  others,  and 
the  best  criterion  of  supreme  manhood  and 
yromanhood  is  when  the  latter  prevails.    More 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     83 

and  more  enlightened  public  opinion  is  coming 
to  distinguish  between  those  who  live  for  them- 
selves and  those  who  live  and  die  by  the  gospel 
of  helpfulness.  Measured  and  judged  by  this 
criterion,  many  moral  values  are  being  trans- 
valued. Some  of  the  great  and  rich  are  re- 
vealed as  small  and  mean,  while  obscure  and 
poor  lives  shine  with  new  glory.  Here  we  have 
the  basis  for  a  new  order  of  nobility  which  all 
may  enter  by  merit.  Indeed,  without  this  new 
spirit,  knowledge  itself  may  be  a  niggardly 
I  thing  and  a  more  refined  form  of  self-indul- 
gence. It  must  not  be  hoarded  or  stowed  away 
in  tombs  only,  but  dispensed  and  brought  to 
bear  where  it  will  do  most  good.  ^ 

"Many  of  our  rich  men  are  now  diligently 
and  earnestly  seeking  new  modes  of  public  help- 
fulness and  finding  new  needs.  Men  and  women 
with  leisure,  strength,  and  youth  are  devoting 
themselves  to  social  welfare  in  numbers  and 
with  an  enthusiasm  hitherto  unknown,  and  we 
need  not  go  to  France  or  Japan,  where  civic 
virtue  and  patriotism  have  been  deliberately 

*G.  S.  HaU*s  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  672. 


8f         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

made  the  only  religion  of  the  state,  to  find  a 
large  and  growing  rich  literature  upon  the  new 
duties  of  man  to  man.  We  are  now  happily 
demanding  more  and  better  things  of  the 
family,  the  school,  the  state,  and  the  church 
than  they  are  now  doing.  .  .  .  Public  sentiment 
is  becoming  wiser  and  better.  We  are  testing 
ourselves  as  well  as  our  institutions  by  this 
new  touchstone  of  service.  It  is  the  modem 
version  of  the  judgment-day  function.  Its  still 
small  voice  is  now  murmuring  in  the  ears  of  all 
who  can  hear  and  it  is  asking  each,  'What  are 
you  doing  to  help  the  world,  you,  here,  and  now 
to  make  those  you  come  in  contact  with  better 
and  happier!  .  .  .* 

**The  basis  of  all  education  for  citizenship 
is  to  rectify  and  broaden  the  group  spirit  and 
prevent  its  degeneration,  to  which  the  pathology 
of  the  crowd  shows  it  is  so  prone.  Hoodlumism 
should  be  set  forth  and  kept  down;  social,  civic, 
and  charitable  institutions  should  be  described 
and  visited  if  possible,  as  is  indeed  now  done 
in  some  places,  even  with  the  upi)er  grammar 


REQUIRED  STBJBCTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES 


.  .  Mimcipal  leagues, 
movements,  junior  republics,  sdiool  and  gardes 
cities,  shonld  be  at  least  told  of  in  the  s^diool, 
and  boys  espedaJty  be  sympatbetically  tangjit 
how  their  own  mimicii>ality  is  governed,  and  no 
longer  leave  school,  in  almost  ntter  ignoraaee 
of  the  above  things,  for  the  life  of  the  eom- 
nnmity  does  not  go  throng  the  schooL  .  .  . 
Perhaps  stress  npon  the  machinery  of  govern- 
ment, esi)ecially  that  of  the  nation,  shonld  be 
mainly  reserved  for  the  high  school,  bnt  here 
at  tiie  very  latest,  this  instmction  shonld  be 
stressed  and,  if  possible,  be  made  the  work  of 
the  best  teacher,  perhaps  the  specialty  of  tiie 
principal  Here,  too,  the  work  of  good  govern- 
ment cfaibs,  civic  leagues,  and  ^eir  national 
federation,  the  ethics  of  taxation,  the  obligation 
and  responsibilities  of  wealth,  the  duties  of  tiie 
ballot,  something  about  public  works,  epoA- 
making  bills,  arbitration,  conservation,  pnblie 
landgj  administration,  economy,  basal  principleB 
of  thrift,  personal,  domestic,  city  and  national, 
shonld  be  emphasized.    Indeed,  these  things 


86         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

should  now  be  taught  with  ahnost  religious,  if 
not  Pentecostal  fervor.''* 

**Our  schools  were  established  to  give  an  in- 
telligent basis  to  government  of,  by  and  for 
the  people,  and  in  civics  we  are  restoring  the 
school  to  its  prime  original  function,  the  need 
of  which  has  greatly  increased  by  reason  of  the 
growing  complexity  of  governmental  machin- 
ery. ' '  Our  voting  public  is  changing  continually, 
due  to  the  great  forces  existing  iq  our  modem 
cities.  Our  boys  and  girls  must  be  fitted  for 
service  in  this  complex  life.  '^The  civic  move- 
ment would  make  every  school  and  university 
a  solidarity  of  mutual  helpfulness,  would  arouse 
and  capture  the  very  greatest  power  for  good 


*G.  S.  Hairs  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  678. 

Nicholas  M.  Butler,  President  of  Columbia  University 
in  his  book  The  Meaning  of  Education,  p.  91  (Macmillan 
Ck).,  N.  Y.,  1904),  makes  this  significant  statement:  "In  a 
democracy  at  least  an  education  is  a  failure  that  does  not 
relate  itself  to  the  duties  and  opportunities  of  citizenship. 
...  In  society  as  it  exists  to-day  the  dominant  note  run- 
ning through  all  of  our  struggles  and  problems,  is  economic, 
what  the  old  Greeks  might  have  called  political.  Yet  it 
Is  a  constant  fight  to  get  any  proper  teaching  from  the 
economic  and  social  point  of  view  put  before  high-school 
and  coUege  students." 


EEQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     87 

that  exists  in  the  world,  which  is  the  enthusiasm 
of  youth.  Civics  is  a  virile  subject  and  appeals 
most  to  boys  and  should  always  be  taught  by 
public-spirited  men.  It  should  re-enlist  the  in- 
terests of  boys  at  the  age  when  most  now  leave 
school,  in  continuing  it.  Some  contend  that 
themes  of  burning  present  zest  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  school  because  their  lessons 
cannot  be  given  without  partisanship;  while 
others  maintain  that  both  sides  of  every  public 
question  might  be  stated  impartially.  It  has  been 
found  practical  sometimes  to  have  representa- 
tives of  both  sides  present  their  views  to  high 
school  students.  Surely  the  school  cannot  be 
a  place  where  nothing  of  vital  present  concern 
is  taught.  Citizenship  is  the  only  profession 
which  all  young  men  should  be  trained  for. 
Teachers  have  frequently  of  late  entered  the 
arena  of  politics  for  their  own  interests,  why 
should  they  not  do  so  for  those  of  their 
pupils  I'*' 

Since  social,  economic,  and  political  interests 

•  G.  S.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  677. 


88         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

now  occupy  the  center  of  tlie  stage  *  would  the 
state  which  supports  the  high  school,  ask  too 
much  if  it  demanded  that  every  high  school 
graduate  know  something  of  all,  if  not  all  of 
any  one,  of  such  topics  as  the  referendum,  the 
recall  of  officials,  the  primaries,  the  caucus, 
direct  nominations,  court  procedure;  delays; 
juries ;  free  legal  as  well  as  medical  and  religious 
advice  for  the  poor;  public  utilities  and  move- 
ments ;  the  tariff,  free  food,  and  raw  material ; 
compulsion  by  warrants  of  all  able-bodied  citi- 
zens to  go  to  the  polls  to  vote;  the  infamy  of 
getting  everything  possible  from,  and  giving 
nothing  to  the  community ;  the  expenses  of  elec- 
tions; gerrymandering  versus  laying  political 
districts  by  engineers;  government  by  commis- 
sion; taxation,  its  forms,  land,  direct,  income, 
etc. ;  city,  home  rule ;  parcels  post,  currency  and 
banking,  trusts,  stocks  and  bonds ;  public  health, 
hygiene  and  its  legislation,  disease,  child  labor; 
habeas  corpus;  a  bureau  for  the  purchase  df 
state  supplies;  creation  of  judges;  garbage; 
pawn,   junk   and   rag   shops;    sweating;   bill- 

•G.  G.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  VoL  II,  p.  677. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS;    SOCIAL  STUDIES     89 

boards,  and  disfigurement  by  posters  and  'ads'; 
immigration  and  its  regulation,  property  and 
contracts;  the  problems  of  transportation; 
municipal  research,  police  systems;  fire,  acci- 
dent, life  and  other  forms  of  insurance?  Here 
we  have  a  list  of  subjects  which  might  be  ex- 
tended indefinitely.  Since  ignorance  of  such 
themes  makes  voting  hardly  better  than  il- 
literacy itself,  may  we  not  rightly  ask:  Are 
the  high  schools  giving  the  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  boys  under  their  charge,  whose  educa- 
tion will  go  no  farther,  a  square  deal  if  they 
contribute  nothing  to  make  them  better  citizens 
and  do  not  touch  this  highest  domain  of  ap- 
plied morality?  This  time  of  civic  awakening 
constitutes  a  pedagogic  opportunity  too  valu- 
able to  be  lost.  There  is  a  new  social  conscious- 
ness abroad,  the  sentiment  of  which  is:  each 
for  all  and  all  for  each.  ^ 

**The  time  will  come  when  every  unmarried 
young  lady  of  leisure  will  be  ashamed  to  devote 
all  her  time  to  the  vanities  of  fashionable 
society  and  selfish  amusements,  but  will  feel  it 

»G.  S.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  VoL  II,  p.  678. 


90         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

incumbent  upon  her  to  do  something  for  others, 
to  perhaps  be  a  big  sister  to  some  one  or  more 
young  girls  who  need  her  ministrations. 
Women's  clubs,  that  now  have  in  this  country 
over  700,000  members,  will  instruct  themselves 
in  such  topics  as  front  door  and  window  garden- 
ing among  the  poor,  better  housing,  etc.  We 
shall  have  many  a  1915  or  1920  movement  and 
shall  multiply  social  settlements.  Good  citizens 
would  be  ashamed  where  there  are  city  slums, 
filthy  back  yards,  cesspools  or  plague  spots, 
physical  or  moral,  and  will  feel  it  a  function 
not  only  of  the  boards  of  trade,  but  of  all  busi- 
ness leaders  and  other  concerns  to  improve  the 
civic  conditions.  The  leaders  of  industry  and 
commercial  organizations  are  realizing  that  if 
a  city  is  to  be  great  in  business,  it  must  be  great 
civically,  as  Pittsburg  has  realized  in  the  no 
less  than  fourteen  new  agencies  that  have  been 
established  there  to  this  end.  This  is  the  new 
standpoint  of  the  citizen  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury, and  intelligent  public  opinion  and  expert 
service  must  carry  on  the  work."® 

•G.  S.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  679. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     91 

**  Conscience,  current  custom,  and  law  often 
constitute  three  very  different  standards  hard 
to  harmonize  on  such  problems  unless  it  is  pro- 
foundly realized  that  the  public  welfare  is  the 
supreme  criterion.  ^  ...  If  we  understand  how 
most  of  the  evils  of  our  day  come,  not  because 
the  people  do  not  mean  well  and  wish  the  best, 
but  because  they  are  densely  ignorant  and  do 
not  know  it;  if  we  realize  that  we  live  in  a 
civic  renaissance  when  a  new  humanity  and  a 
wider  philanthropy  are  abroad;  if  we  recog- 
nize how  flexible  men  and  women  must  now  be 
up  to  the  very  end  of  their  lives  in  order  to 
keep  up  with  the  times;  if  we  would  educate 
the  whole  boy;  then  we  must  not  allow  him 
to  leave  the  high  school  uninoculated  with  at 
least  an  attenuated  culture  of  such  things, 
many  if  not  most  of  them,  and  must  give  him 
a  little  of  the  orientation  that  hints  can  often 
implant  forever  at  this  plastic  age.  Teachers 
could  cull  from  popular  magazines  a  series  of 
inspiring  stories  of  the  many  cities  which  in 
recent  years  have  arisen  in  their  might  to  sweep 

•G.  S.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II.  p.  280. 


92        EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

away  abuses,  to  clean  up  morally  and  physically, 
could  tell  of  some  of  the  magnificent  concerted 
efforts  which  some  large  municipalities  have 
made  to  control  and  direct  their  own  further 
development  along  well-considered  and  unitary 
plans  that  look  toward  architectural,  transpor- 
tational,  aesthetic  and  ethical  harmony  by  rally- 
ing together  of  good  men."^° 

**The  school  is  the  training  ship  for  the  ship 
of  state  and  is  freighted,  like  it,  with  all  our 
hopes  and  fears,  and  on  the  fate  of  one  we 
hang  no  less  breathlessly  than  on  the  other.  It 
is  chartered  by  the  people  and  plies  between 
the  river  of  childhood  and  the  open  sea  of  adult 
life.  It  should  not  be  idly  moored  in  shallow 
waters  in  some  sheltered  nook,  but  hoist  anchor, 
spread  sail,  and  boldly  venture  out  where  the 
tide  and  current  buffet  each  other.  It  should 
teach  not  mere  ship  discipline,  but  the  art  and 
craft  of  sailing  and  this  it  cannot  do  without 
braving  at  least  some  of  the  slighter  dangers 
of  navigation  in  open  seas.  If  the  timorous 
counsels  of  safeness  constitute  our  only  wisdom, 

*G.  S.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  681. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     93 

then  every  topic  on  whieh  there  are  vital  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  must  be  tabooed,  and  the 
school  loses  its  vitality.  .  .  .  Civics  in  the 
above  large  sense  must  be  the  new  religion  of 
the  secular  schools.  The  old  religion  gave  but 
the  motive  that  created  and,  for  centuries 
dominated,  education  through  all  its  grades. 
...  In  the  new  civics,  however,  we  have  the 
best  substitute,  a  philanthropic  social  religion. 
.  .  .  We  seem  to  be  at  the  dawn  of  a  new 
dispensation,  imminent  rather  than  trans- 
cendent.''" 

A  Committee  of  the  N.  E.  A.  which  made  a 
report  relating  to  the  social  studies  "  believes 
that  the  training  of  youth  for  citizenship  must 
include  instruction  in  economic  questions  that 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  civic  life.  Emphasis  is 
given  to  economic  topics  in  the  outline  for 
"community  civics"  (see  circular  No.  5)  and 


»G.  S.  HaU's  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  682. 

"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Civic  Education,  Series  No. 
6,  Civic  Education  in  Secondary  Schools  (Abstract  of  Re- 
port of  N.  E.  A.  Committee  on  Social  Studies  continued 
from  Civic  Education  Series,  No.  5).  Survey  of  Vocations 
and  Economics. 


94         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

opportunity  is  presented  for  much  more  tHan 
is  directly  suggested  in  the  outline.  The  com- 
mittee favors  something  of  specific  vocational 
bearing  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  and 
suggests  a  ** survey  of  vocations." 

**The  committee  has  in  mind  (1)  That  the 
economic  well-being  of  the  individual  and  of 
the  community  is  fundamental  to  good  civic 
life,  and  that  the  youth  needs  help  in  finding 
a  vocation  for  which  he  is  fitted  and  by  which 
he  can  render  a  maximum  of  service.  (2)  That, 
since  every  youth  has  an  interest  in  the  choice 
of  his  vocation,  it  serves  as  an  effective  avenue 
of  approach  to  a  study  of  the  broader  civil 
relations,  many  of  which  are  clearly  illustrated 
in  industrial  or  economic  life.  ^* 

In  the  fourth  year  the  committee  suggests  a 
course  to  unfold  the  broader  principles  of 
economics  further  and  more  systematically 
than  can  be  done  in  earlier  courses.  The  com- 
mittee is  not  ready  to  make  precise  recommen-  ' 
dations  as  to  its  organization,  or  as  to  its 

"  Abstract  of  Report  of  N.  E.  A.  Committee  on  the  Social 
Studies. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     95 

articulation  with  the  '* advanced  civics''  of  the 
same  year  and  with  the  other  social  studies. 
The  articulation  should  be  as  close  and  the 
study  as  concrete  as  possible,  with  special  em- 
phasis upon  the  divisions  of  consumption  and 
production.  H.  R.  Burch  of  the  Manual  Train- 
ing High  School  of  Philadelphia,  and  a  member 
of  the  committee  says: 

'*The  high  school  work  in  economics  should 
center  around  concrete  problems.  For  instance, 
a  discussion  of  the  consumption  of  wealth  can 
readily  be  focused  upon  the  cost  of  the  neces- 
saries of  life;  the  relation  between  wages  and 
such  costs ;  the  standard  of  living  of  groups  of 
people  in  the  immediate  neighborhood.  Pupils 
can  analyze  expenditures  of  their  own  families 
to  show  the  proportion  devoted  to  food,  rent, 
clothing,  etc.  They  may  formulate  the  expen- 
diture of  $1500  a  year  for  a  family  containing, 
four  children. 

**0n  the  side  of  production  the  best  concrete 
material  is  that  which  relates  to  labor.  Pupils 
can  ob'serve  the  characteristics  of  the  labor  in 
a  given  section  of  the  city,  or  in  a  given  indus- 


96         EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

try.  In  almost  any  manufacturing  center  their 
observations  will  lead  directly  into  the  prob- 
lems of  immigration,  which  is  concrete  and  as 
vital  as  any  question  connected  with  the  modem 
industrial  system. 

*' Another  subject  for  concrete  analysis  is  the 
way  in  which  labor  is  organized  in  different 
industries,  the  proportion  of  men  who  are  com- 
mon laborers,  the  proportion  of  those  who  are 
skilled,  and  the  relation  of  these  numbers  to 
the  number  of  higher  officials.  Conservation 
may  be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  use 
of  natural  resources.  In  almost  any  section  of 
the  country  pupils  can  observe  the  waste  in 
agricultural  land  and  in  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses. Constructive  work  may  be  done  by 
showing  how  these  wastes  are  utilized  through 
conversion  into  forms  commercially  valuable. 

**One  of  the  most  important  developments 
of  the  next  ten  years  in  the  work  of  the  public 
schools  will  involve  the  closer  correlation  of 
school  work  and  the  industrial  and  commercial 
work  of  the  districts  in  which  the  schools  are 
located.   Newspaper  and  magazine  reading  will 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    SOCIAL  STUDIES     97 

enable  the  students  to  take  up  some  of  the 
larger  phases  of  economic  life.  The  trusts  can 
be  studied;  the  tariff  discussed.  Labor  legisla- 
tion, pure  food  laws,  and  other  forms  of  legis- 
lative control  of  industry  can  be  emphasized. 
The  social  movements  of  the  day  form  valuable 
topics  for  class  discussion." 


CHAPTER  VI 

BEQUIEED  subjects:  (CONTINUED) — ^ENGLISH 

OuB  efforts  in  regard  to  how  to  study  and 
how  to  teach  English  **  reminds  us  of  the  con- 
dition of  many  Christians  described  by  Dante 
who  strove  by  prayers  to  get  nearer  to  God, 
when  in  fact  with  every  petition  they  were  de- 
parting farther  from  Him."  According  to  G. 
Stanley  Hall,  the  present  degeneration  in  the 
command  of  the  English  language  is  due  to  four 
causes,  namely:  (1)  too  much  time  is  devoted 
to  foreign  languages,  (2)  the  study  of  litera- 
ture and  content  is  too  often  subordinated  to 
language  study  and  mere  form,  (3)  reading 
and  writing  are  too  early  substituted  for  hear- 
ing and  speaking,  (4)  the  growing  preponder- 
ance of  concrete  words  for  designating  things 
of  sense  and  physical  acts  over  and  against 

98 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  99 

higher  elements  of  language  which  deal  with 
concepts,  with  ideals,  and  non-material  things. 
In  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  the  first  three 
points. 

First:  One  of  the  main  reasons  for  poor 
English  in  high  school  is  because  of  the  exces- 
sive time  given  to  other  languages  just  at  the 
psychological  period  of  greatest  linguistic 
plasticity  and  capacity  for  growth.  Dr.  Hall 
aptly  says,  '*Very  grave  is  the  danger  that  the 
idiomatic  use  of  the  mother  tongue  will  be  de- 
stroyed by  'translation  English.' ''  A  boy 
pieces  together  into  an  English  sentence,  which 
is  as  weird  as  it  is  literal,  a  series  of  definitions, 
and  tolerance  of  this  style  impairs  his  sentence 
sense  and  fine  feeling  for  his  mother  tongue. 
He  never  learns  to  fuse  the  sense  of  it  in  a  cru- 
cible of  his  own  intelligence  and  to  recast  it  in 
the  most  effective  way  which  the  genius  of  his 
own  tongue  makes  possible.  It  is  a  psychological 
impossibility  to  pass  through  the  apprentice- 
ship stage  of  learning  foreign  languages  at  the 
age  when  the  vernacular  is  setting  without 
crippling  it. 


100       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

**  There  is  little  educational  value — ^and  per- 
haps it  is  de-educational — ^to  learn  to  tell  the 
time  of  day  or  name  a  spade  in  several  different 
tongues  or  to  learn  to  say  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  many  different  languages,  any  one  of  which 
the  Lord  only  can  understand.  Some  declare 
it  a  shame  for  a  boy  to  excel  in  Latin  composi- 
tion and  in  the  high  schools  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way it  has  been  practically  abandoned.  Prime 
regard  is  had  for  what  pupils  will  need  as  self- 
supporting,  self-respecting,  and  efficient  mem- 
bers of  society.  As  a  result  illiteracy  is,  in 
Norway,  a  vanishing  fraction  of  1  per  cent. 
The  extremes  are  the  youth  in  ancient  Greece 
studying  his  own  language  only  and  the  modern 
high  school  boy  dabbling  in  three  or  four 
languages. '^ 

Although  Dr.  Hall  is  opposed  to  Latin  as  a 
required  study  in  high  school,  nevertheless,  he 
believes  profoundly  in  it  both  as  a  university 
specialty  and  for  all  students  who  even  ap- 
proach mastery.  It  is  for  the  vast  numbers 
who  stop  studying  the  subject  in  the  early 
stages  of  proficiency  that  he  speaks ;  to  these  it 


REQUIRED   SUBjtedTS:  * ^JNGli'SS* '^  ' '101 

is  disastrous  to  tlie  vernacular.  The  psychology 
of  translation  shows  that  it  gives  the  novice 
a  consciousness  of  etymologies  which  rather 
impedes  than  helps  the  free  movement  of  the 
mind.  Dr.  Jowett  is  of  the  same  opinion.  He 
said  in  substance  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  render  either  of  the  great  dead  languages 
into  English  without  compromise,  and  this 
tends  to  injure  the  idiomatic  mastery  of  one's 
own  tongue,  which  ^an  be  got  only  by  much 
hard  experience  in  uttering  our  thoughts  before 
trying  to  shape  the  dead  thoughts  of  others  in 
our  language.  We  realize  that  this  argument 
is  sound  if  we  compare  the  evils  of  *  translation 
English'  which  not  even  the  most  competent 
and  laborious  teaching  can  wholly  prevent  and 
which  careless  mechanical  instruction  directly 
fosters,  with  the  vigorous  fresh  productions  of 
a  boy  or  girl  writing  or  speaking  of  something 
of  vital  present  interest. 

Often  the  question  is  asked,  '*Has  not  Latin 
value  merely  as  a  *  linguistic  discipline?'  "  In 
answering  this  question  Dr.  Conradi  ^  says  that 

'  See  article  on  Latin  In  the  Ped.  Sem.  for  March,  1905, 


102' •  lEBtCA'MOr'DtfeilffG  ADOLESCENCE 

Latin  is  a  linguistic  discipline  is  true,  any 
language  is,  but  whether  it  is  the  best,  the  most 
fruitful  linguistic  discipline  for  the  high  school 
student  who  knows  only  his  mother  tongue  and 
who  will  drop  Latin  as  soon  as,  or  before,  his 
high  school  course  is  ended,  is  a  question  that 
should  be  seriously  considered. 

Says  C.  W.  Eliot,  '*It  is  a  waste  to  society 
and  an  outrage  upon  the  individual  to  make 
the  boy  spend  the  years  when  he  is  most  teach- 
able in  a  discipline  the  end  of  which  he  can 
never  reach  when  he  might  have  spent  them  in 
a  different  discipline,  which  would  have  been 
rewarded  by  achievement.  ^  Our  literatures  the 
world  over  .  .  .  are  so  rich,  so  full  of  thought, 
feeling,  and  action,  that  there  is  no  time  to 
waste  .  .  .  upon  lifeless  material,  when  we 
may  be  occupying  ourselves  in  those  exercises 
and  for  the  same  purpose  of  discipline,  with 
material  that  enriches  the  human  mind  and  re- 
fines and  touches  the  human  heart.     Modern 

by  Dr.  Edward  Conradi,  now  President  of  Florida  State 
College. 

»C.  W.  EUot,  Educational  Reform,  p.  117,  The  Century 
Co.,  1901. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  103 

edncation  in  its  adjustment  is  bringing  the  child 
into  its  literary  inheritance  in  a  new  spirit." 

**The  modern  world  has  developed  a  culture 
of  its  own.  .  .  .  The  first  question,"  says  Dr. 
N.  M.  Butler,  **to  be  asked  of  any  course  of 
study  is,  *Does  it  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  our 
contemporary  civilization  T  If  not,  it  is  neither 
efficient  nor  liberal."  ** Culture,"  said  0.  W. 
Holmes,  **in  the  form  of  fruitless  knowledge, 
I  utterly  abhor." 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  advanced  for  giving 
Latin  such  a  prominent  place  in  the  high  school 
is  that  the  English  vocabulary  is  so  largely  de- 
rived from  Latin.  We  have,  it  is  true,  many 
words  from  the  Latin  directly,  or  through  the 
French.  An  exact  estimate  of  the  foreign  ele- 
ment in  our  language  is  impossible,  but  roughly 
speaking,  about  two-fifths,  according  to  one 
authority*  of  the  words  found  in  the  English 
dictionary  are  derived  from  Latin.  The  con- 
tributions of  the  Latin  language  to  the  English 
are  next  in  importance  and  amount  to  those  of 

•Dp.  C.  D.  staples,  A  Critique  of  High  School  Latin. 
Ped.  Sem.,  Dec,  1912. 


104       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

the  Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  interesting  to  note  here 
that  96  per  cent  of  the  words  of  Chapters,  I,  IV, 
and  XVII  of  the  Gospel  according  to  John,  and 
87  per  cent  of  the  words  used  by  Longfellow  in 
writing  Miles  Standish  are  Anglo-Saxon. 

When  we  consider  the  number  of  words  de- 
rived from  Latin  we  naturally  assume  that  the 
study  of  Latin  is  very  important  to  the  high 
school  student,  but  when  we  learn  that  the  *  *  2000 
Latin  words  studied  in  the  high  school  do  not 
at  all  fairly  represent  the  Latin  element  in 
English  speech,"  and  especially  when  we  learn 
that  **only  99  words  out  of  the  entire  2000  Latin 
words  studied  in  the  complete  four-year  high 
school  course  are  worth  studying  because  they 
throw  light  and  information  upon  English 
words,"  *  do  we  not  modify  our  views  in  regard 
to  the  importance  of  Latin  as  a  required  study 
in  high  school. 

We  are  coining  and  borrowing  words  every 
day  from  foreign  languages,  but  with  all  of  its 
borrowings  English  has  remained  true  to  itself 
and  no  amount  of  study  of  Latin  grammar  can 

*Dr.  C.  D.  staples,  A  Critique  of  High  School  Latin, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Dec,  1912. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  105 

give  US  the  force  of  living  English  idiom.  The 
structure  of  English  is  English.  Latin  and 
Greek  are  **  incidents  or  accidents,  not  necessi- 
ties'' of  our  mother  tongue,  in  fact  **no 
language  is  a  model  for  another.''  For  the 
ordinary  boy  or  girl  the  inflections  and  conjuga- 
tions of  the  foreign  languages  are  **  simply  a 
millstone  around  the  neck. ' '  Not  ^ '  fossil  gram- 
mar, but  living  speech  is  a  matter  for  education. ' ' 
**  Latin  has  no  more  shaped  the  English  tongue 
than  Rome  has  built  the  Saxon  heart  or  made 
the  Saxon  arm.  English  grammar  is  soundly 
Anglo-Saxon  run  through  the  sieve  of  the  mind 
that  never  had  a  Latin  bent."® 

A  few  years'  study  of  Latin  in  the  high  school \ 
does  not  necessarily  give  one  a  command  of  ^ 
an  English  vocabulary.  '*  Statistical  studies 
show  that  five  hours  a  week  for  a  year  give 
command  of  but  a  few  hundred  words,  that  two 
years  do  not  double  this  number,  and  that  the 
command  of  the  language  and  its  resources  in 
the  original  is  almost  never  attained,  but  that 
it  is  abandoned  not  only  by  the  increasing  per- 

•Dr.  Alexander  F.  Chamberlain. 


106       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

centage  who  do  not  go  to  college,  but  also  by 
the  increasing  percentage  who  drop  it  forever 
at  the  college  door."'  Latin  is  a  language  so 
different  from  ours  that  it  presents  baffling  diffi- 
culties to  the  young  beginner.  Paulsen  thinks 
this  difference  is  an  obstacle  which  can  be  over- 
come only  by  an  exclusive  sojourn  for  many 
years  in  the  world  of  antiquity. 

Speaking  of  *Hhe  acquisition  of  a  competent 
knowledge  of  English''  Dr.  C.  W.  Eliot  says: 
^*  Indeed  there  is  no  subject  in  which  competent 
guidance  and  systematic  instruction  are  of 
greater  value."  He  believes,  however,  that  the 
study  of  Latin  is  not  an  effective  way  to  acquire 
a  '* competent  knowledge  of  English."^ 

Dr.  Conradi®  contends  that  we  ought  to  let 
the  high  school  student  study  the  English  words 
in  their  natural  habitat  as  they  live  among 
other  words,  in  poetry  and  in  prose,  instead  of 
worshiping  their  ancestors.     The  history  of 

•Youth,  p.  242. 

»C.  W.  EUot,  Educational  Reform,  pp.  99-100,  Century 
Co.,  1901. 
•Ped.  Sem.,  March,  1905. 


BEQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  107 

a  word  has  little  meaning  for  him  until  he 
knows  the  word  in  its  present  use,  then  and 
then  only  can  derivation  have  value.  Suppose 
a  pupil  knows  the  etymology  of  a  word;  sup- 
pose he  does  know  the  Latin  meaning  of  res 
and  puhlica;  does  that  give  him  the  meaning 
of  the  word  '^republican"  as  used  to-day? 

Moreover,  says  Dr.  Conradi,  must  the  student 
worry  through  all  the  intricacies  of  Latin  gram- 
mar with  its  innumerable  rules  and  countless 
exceptions  in  order  to  know  a  little  about  the 
meaning  that  the  Romans  attached  to  the  word 
virtue?  Some  of  the  noblest  interpretations  of 
such  words  have  been  given  by  men  and  women 
who  never  wrestled  once,  neither  with  a  Latin 
ablative  nor  with  a  Latin  subjunctive.  Is  it 
not  of  more  importance  that  the  pupils  should 
know  the  force  of  a  word  in  current  use? 

The  roots  that  the  student  finds  by  the  long 
and  wearisome  Latin  road  are  often  not  ap- 
preciated because  of  the  company  in  which  they 
are  found.  Moreover,  language  did  not  begin 
with  Latin  nor  was  it  created  in  any  other 


108       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

period  of  the  past.  It  is  being  created  now 
as  well  as  in  the  past  ages.  It  is  ever  changing; 
and  this  living,  ever-creating  activity  is  of  vital 
importance  and  not  the  burnt  cinders  of  ages 
past.  Whatever  value  they  may  have,  they  do 
not  represent  our  language. 

**  Language  as  used  on  the  platform,  and  in 
the  pulpit,  by  the  common  laborer,  and  by  the 
press,  as  used  by  the  writers  and  singers  of 
this  age  .  .  .  when  intellect  is  at  white  heat, 
and  passion  in  its  every  throe  .  .  .  that  repre- 
sents the  language  of  to-day.  Such  language 
studied  in  the  height  of  its  activity  gives  the 
true  meaning  of  words.  Whether  the  word  was 
borrowed  from  Latin,  from  Greek,  from  He- 
brew, or  Choctaw,  it  now  is  English,  and  as 
English  we  study  it;  the  etymology  is  a  sec- 
ondary matter.  This  idea  was  recognized  by 
the  makers  of  the  Standard  Dictionary  when 
they  placed  the  etymology  after  the  definition. ' ' " 

Second:  Another  reason  for  poor  results  in 
English  is  that  too  often  literature  and  content 
are    subordinated    to    language    work.      The 

•Dr.  A.  F.  Chamberlain. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  109 

feachers  of  English  are  often  critical  rather 
than  creative,  Dr.  Hall  asserts.  They  prefer 
the  minute  and  careful  reading  of  a  few  master- 
pieces to  a  wide  general  knowledge,  whereas 
the  way  to  teach  language,  he  contends,  is  to 
focus  the  mind  upon  story,  history,  oratory, 
drama,  Bible,  for  their  esthetic,  mental  and 
above  all  their  moral  content.  And  it  is  this 
wide,  sympathetic,  general  knowledge  that  the 
youthful  mind  chiefly  seeks. 

"Oral  and  written  vents  for  interests  so  in- 
tense that  they  must  be  told  and  shared,  are 
what  teach  us  how  to  command  the  resources 
of  our  mother  tongue.  The  prescriptions  and 
corrections  and  consciousness  of  the  manifold 
ways  of  error  are  never  so  peculiarly  likely  to 
hinder  rather  than  to  help  as  in  early  adoles- 
cence, when  the  soul  has  a  new  content,  and  a 
new  sense  for  it,  and  so  abhors  and  is  so  in- 
capable of  precision  and  propriety  of  diction.  '^® 

**We  see  its  results  in  the  ultra-fastidious 
effusions  of  many  writers  for  college  journals, 
whose  art  culminates  in  the  over-refined  elabor- 

» Youth,  p.  245. 


UO   EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

ation  of  some  petty  trifle,  all  form  and  no  con- 
tent.*^ .  .  .  Some  want  everything  done  in  a 
minute  and  exact  way.  How  different  all  this 
from  the  standpoint  of  those  who  believe  in 
consulting  human  nature  and  needs."  .  .  .  The 
graces  of  speech  and  reading  aloud  and  story 
telling  are  too  often  subordinated."" 
1  Teachers  must  guide,  incite,  provide,  pre- 
scribe, allure  by  story,  reading  lists,  display  of 
books,  and  by  reading  aloud,  says  Dr.  Hall. 
Moreover,  he  declares,  **The  current  detailed 
study  of  a  few  standard  texts  I  believe  to  be 
often  pernicious.  To  be  intensive,  reading 
must  be  extensive  and  rapid  enough  to  sustain 
interest  to  the  end.  There  should  always  be  a 
glow  and  heat  about  it.  Form  is  best  impressed 
by  eager  zest  in  the  subject  matter  which  should 
always  lead.  Eeading  for  philological  or 
rhetorical  study  of  texts  is  for  pretty  mature 
men  and  women  and  not  for  youth  and  still 
less  for  children." 


»G.  S.  HaU,  School  Review,  Dec,  1901,  p.  658. 
"Ibid.,  p.  658. 
"Ibid.,  p.  659. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  111 

**  School  pressure  should  not  suppress  the  in- 
stinct of  omnivorous  reading,  which  at  this  age 
sometimes  prompts  the  resolve  to  read  ency- 
clopedias, and  even  libraries,  or  to  sample  every- 
thing to  be  found  in  books  at  home.  Along 
with,  but  never  suppressing  it,  there  should  be 
some  stated  reading,  but  this  should  lay  down 
only  kinds  of  reading  or  offer  a  goodly  number 
of  alternative  groups  of  books  and  authors  and 
permit  wide  liberty  of  choice  to  both  teacher 
and  pupil.  Few  triumphs  of  the  uniformi- 
tarians,  who  sacrifice  individual  needs  to 
mechanical  convenience  in  dealing  with  youth 
in  masses,  have  been  so  sad  as  marking  off  and 
standardizing  a  definite  quantum  of  knowledge 
in  this  great  field.  The  wide  acceptance  of  re- 
quirement books  and  authors  mark  a  pedagogic 
decadence  as  one  of  the  most  disastrous  tri- 
umphs of  mechanism  and  convenience  over 
mental  needs.'*  ^* 

When  the  public  high  school  really  becomes, 
as  it  surely  will,  the  people's  college,  permeated 
with  ideals  of  fitting  for  life,  which  is  very 

"G.  S.  HaU,  School  Review,  Dec,  1901,  p.  660. 


U2   EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

different  from  fitting  for  college,  then  secondary 
education  will  become  truly  democratic;  it  will 
have  plenty  of  local  color  and  fitting  for  college 
will  become,  as  Dr.  Jordan  well  says  it  should 
be,  a  mere  incident.  The  public  high  school  will 
say  to  the  college,  *  Fitting  is  not  our  chief  busi- 
ness; you  are  not  our  pacemaker;  our  business 
is  to  do  the  best  we  can  for  the  youth  at  this 
stage ;  take  our  finished  product  or  leave  it,  but 
if  either  of  us  bend,  it  must  be  the  college.' 

**Eeading  for  style  or  even  with  chief  atten- 
tion to  it  is  for  young  students  an  affectation. 
I  would  have  at  least  half  a  dozen  plays  of 
Shakespeare  in  the  same  time  now  usually  de- 
voted to  one.  To  study  Ivanhoe,  instead  of 
passing  on  to  the  other  of  Scott's  novels  after 
having  once  read  it,  is  working  with  dulled  tools. 
Did  this  critical  study  of  one  of  anyone's  works 
ever  prompt  the  student  to  read  another  by  the 
same  author!'' 

The  time  for  critical  reading  has  not  yet  come, 
and  that  for  philology  is  still  farther  ahead. 
The  best  thing  youth  gets  from  literature  is 
not  linguistic  and  is  not  examinable;  content 


REQUIEED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  113 

shonld  be  forever  uppermost,  for  only  then  can 
the  other  culture  effects  here  sought  be  attained. 

**The  psycho-genetic  theory  gives  a  new  and 
higher  psychology  and  pedagogy  of  reading  not 
yet  worked  out  in  detail,  but  the  outlines  of 
which  can  already  be  roughly  indicated  some- 
what as  follows:  Its  supreme  function  is  not 
utilitarian,  or  to  help  us  in  all  vocational  bread- 
winning  activities  in  life,  important  as  this  is, 
but  it  is  humanistic,  cultural,  liberal.  It  should 
aim  to  give  vent  to  all  possibilities  of  the  soul, 
most  of  which  otherwise  slumber  through  life 
and  perhaps  atrophy."  .  o  •  A  book,  or  some- 
times an  article,  at  the  right  moment  has  often 
changed  the  current  of  a  whole  lifetime."^® 

'*The  chief  thing  and  the  best  I  got  from 
my  college  course,''  says  Dr.  Hall,  **was  due 
to  a  series  of  reading  fevers,  stimulated  by  a 
group  of  nine  classmates  called  the  Junto,  who 
met  weekly  to  pool  the  results  of  their  reading. 
There  was  almost  no  class  of  English  literature 
that  we  did  not  sample  .  .  .  and  the  farther  we 

« Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  482. 
••Ibid.,  p.  483. 


/ 


114       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

got  from  the  curriculum  the  better  work  we  did 
and  the  more  we  knew.  ...  I  never  could  pass 
an  examination  on  any  one  of  all  these  works 
as  examinations  now  go,  nor  scores  and  perhaps 
hundreds  of  others  that  have  flown  lightly 
through  my  mind  as  diversions  any  more  than 
I  could  on  all  the  plays  I  have  seen  in  the 
theater,  but  I  would  not  exchange  this  habit  of 
desultory  reading  in  a  field  outside  my  specialty 
for  the  schoolbred  habit  of  accurate  and  pains- 
taking familiarity  with  a  few  things  such  as 
professors  of  literature  inculcate,  for  this  would 
greatly  slow  down  my  pace  and  cool  my  ardor. ' ' 
Dr.  C.  W.  Eliot  says,  '*From  the  total  train- 
ing during  childhood  there  should  result  in  the 
child  a  taste  for  interesting  and  improving 
reading,  which  should  direct  and  inspire  its  sub- 
sequent intellectual  life.  .  .  .  Guided  and  ani- 
mated by  this  impulse  to  acquire  knowledge,  the 
individual  will  continue  to  educate  himself  all 
through  life.  .Without  that  deep-rooted  impul- 
sion he  will  soon  cease  to  draw  on  the  accu- 
mulated wisdom  of  the  past  and  the  new 
resources  of  the  present;  and  as  he  grows  older, 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  115 

he  will  live  in  a  mental  atmosphere  which  is 
always  growing  thinner  and  emptier.  ...  Do 
we  not  all  know  many  people  who  seem  to  live 
in  a  mental  vacuum — ^to  whom,  indeed,  we  have 
great  difficulty  in  attributing  immortality,  be- 
cause they  apparently  have  so  little  life  except 
that  of  the  body?  The  uplifting  of  the  demo- 
cratic masses  depends  on  this  implanting  at 
school  of  the  taste  for  good  reading." 

The  pupils  should  write  themes  occasionally,  ! 
but  they  should  never  be  compelled  to  say  any-  1 
thing  unless  they  have  something  to  say.  In 
order  to  write  well,  they  must  have  something 
definite  in  mind  that  presses  for  utterance: 
ideas  to  set  forth,  knowledge  to  impart,  feelings 
to  utter,  convictions  to  state,  experiences  to 
describe,  facts  or  thoughts  to  put  down,  other- 
wise literary  efforts  are  but  verbiage.  When- 
ever children  speak  and  especially  write  with- 
out a  very  real  and  urgent  content,  they  are 
demoralized  and  their  education  is  anti-social. 
The  habit  of  utterance  without  having  some- 
thing that  presses  for  expression  undermines 


116       EDUCATIOIT  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

tlie  foundation  of  honesty  between  man  and 
man,  and  loosens  the  social  bond. " 

*'If  the  pupils  read,  it  must  be  what  absorbs 
and  carries  them  along,  be  what  their  curiosity 
burns  to  know.  They  must  be  impelled  by 
some  strong  interests  and  impulses  character- 
istic of  youth.  If  there  are  plenty  of  these 
things  the  big  P's  of  the  rhetorics — purity, 
precision  and  propriety — come  of  themselves 
untaught  or  are  inculcated  by  the  method  that 
suffices  for  genius,  whether  in  teacher  or  taught 
— Yiz,,  that  of  hints.  Some  familiarity  with  the 
best  contemporary  writers  whose  pages  hum 
with  the  problems  of  the  present  and  that  strike 
home  by  their  inherent  appeal  and  to  approach 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  waste  half  of  the 
energies  of  the  teacher  in  getting  and  keeping 
up  interest,  gives  a  culture  which  is  not  a  sickly 
cellar  plant  and  which  does  not  desiccate  when 
school  is  abandoned."^® 

In  his  *' Educational  Problems''  Dr.  Hall 
makes  a  strong  plea  for  the  study  of  contem- 

"G.  S.Han. 

"Ibid. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS;    ENGLISH  117 

porary  writers  and  modes  of  expression.  He 
says,  **A3  for  Burke,  Macaulay,  Addison,  now 
so  often  required,  their  language  and  style 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  Congress,  in  a  modern 
historical  society,  nor  in  a  history  journal.  .  .  . 
Youth  has  its  own  lingua  franca,  crispy,  con- 
densed, pointed,  picturesque,  staccato,  and  its 
nature  and  needs  fit  the  ponderous  Latin  style 
of  the  above  English  authors  as  Saul's  armor 
fitted  young  David.  As  for  Scott,  he  should 
be  read  rapidly  as  romance  and  not  studied  in 
a  detailed  way  as  literature." 

Dr.  David  Snedden  is  of  the  same  opinion  as 
Dr.  Hall  for  he  says  in  a  recent  contribution, 
**  Certainly  the  possibilities  of  literature  teach- 
ing are  very  great.  Should  not  the  teachers 
see  that  the  material  chosen  and  the  methods 
of  presentation  are  such  as  will  bring  the 
children  to  a  better  appreciation  of  the  litera- 
ture and  reading  by  which  they  will  be  sur- 
rounded later  in  life  and  leave  them  in  a  con- 
dition to  demand  the  slightly  better  rather  than 
the  slightly  worse?  Should  not  the  teacher  deal 
much  with  the  best  of  our  current  magazines 


118       EDUCATION 'DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

and  newspapers?  Should  he  hold  aloof  from 
the  current  fiction,  in  view  of  the  certainty  that 
it  will  form  the  staple  reading  after  these  boys 
and  girls  leave  school?  This  is  no  defense  of 
the  poor  and  cheap  in  literature  or  art;  it  is 
simply  a  statement  of  the  now  accepted  peda- 
gogical truth  that  education  proceeds  most 
effectively  by  utilizing  the  best  materials  of  the 
environment,  in  such  a  way  as  best  to  fit  the 
pupil  for  the  environment  in  which  he  will  spend 
his  adult  life.'' 

One  of  the  most  important  of  all  educational 
services  of  the  near  future  is  to  re-write  and 
re-edit"  all  the  world's  great  literatures  upon 
all  themes ;  for  the  student,  is  to-day  confronted 
by  a  mass  of  literature  and  must  read  for  dear 
life  or  he  is  swamped.  .  .  .  For  the  most  alert, 
the  function  of  judicious  epitomes,  reviews, 
year-books,  etc.,  is  increasingly  necessary. 
Every  scientific  journal  should  stress  the  de- 
velopment of  resumes  of  both  books  and  articles, 
and  indeed  owes  a  duty  if  not  its  very  raison 
d'etre  largely  in  this  direction.    As  it  is,  there 

»  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  233. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  119 

is  mucli  wastage  of  work  done  over  and  over 
again  by  those  who  did  not  know  that  others 
before  them  had  covered  their  ground  and 
reached  their  own  conclusions.^^  In  Germany 
**many  careful  digests  of  great  standard  works 
have  been  made  embodying  salient  phrases  and 
quotations  from  the  original,  epic  and  lyric 
poetry,  exploration,  adventure,  biography,  and 
even  jests  and  humorous  tales,  which  must  be 
read  as  part  of  the  course  in  literature  with 
a  little  of  it  studied  in  detail  and  memorized 
— all  this  marks  a  new  and  important  step 
toward  the  practical  solution  of  the  great  prob- 
lem of  language  and  literature  in  secondary 
education."" 

Third:  We  might  get  better  results  in  our 
English  work  if  reading  and  writing  were  not 
too  early  substituted  for  hearing  and  speaking. 
**It  is  hard  and,  in  the  history  of  the  race,  a 
late  change  to  receive  language  through  the  eye 
which  reads  instead  of  through  the  ear  which 
hears.^^  .    .    .  The   invention   of  letters  is   a 

*  Educational  Problems,  Ii;  pp.  48t>-487. 
"  G.  S.  Hall,  Ped.  Sem.,  Mar.,  1902,  p.  101. 
"Youth,  p.  246. 


120       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

novelty  in  the  history  of  the  race  that  spoke  for 
countless  ages  before  it  wrote.  .  .  .  The  book 
is  dead  and  more  or  less  impersonal,  best  ap- 
prehended in  solitude,  its  matter  more  intel- 
lectualized;  it  deals  in  remoter  second-hand 
knowledge  so  that  Plato  reproached  Aristotle 
as  a  reader,  one  removed  from  the  first  spon- 
taneous source  of  original  impression  and 
ideas;  the  doughty  medieval  knights  scorned 
reading  as  a  mere  clerk's  trick,  not  wishing  to 
muddle  their  wits  with  other  people's  ideas 
when  their  own  were  good  enough  for 
them.  .  .  ." 

**The  printed  page  must  not  be  too  suddenly 
or  too  early  thrust  between  the  child  and  life. 
The  plea  is  for  more  oral  and  objective  work, 
more  stories,  narratives,  and  even  vivid  read- 
ings, as  is  now  done  statedly  in  more  than  a 
dozen  of  the  public  libraries  of  the  country, 
not  so  often  by  teachers  as  by  librarians,  all 
to  the  end  that  the  ear,  the  chief  receptacle  of 
language,  be  maintained  in  its  dominance,  that 
the  fine  sense  of  sound,  rhythm,  cadence,  pro- 
nunciation, and  speech-music  generally  be  not 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  121 

atrophied,  that  the  eye  which  normally  ranges 
freely  from  far  to  near  be  not  injured  by  the 
confined  treadmill  and  zig-zag  of  the  printed 
page.''"" 

**  Closely  connected  with  this,  and  perhaps 
psychologically  worse,  is  the  substitution  of  the 
pen  and  the  scribbling  fingers  for  the  mouth 
and  tongue.  Speech  is  directly  to  and  from  the 
soul.  Writing,  the  deliberation  of  which  fits 
age  better  than  youth,  slows  down  its  im- 
petuosity many  fold,  and  is  in  every  way 
farther  removed  from  vocal  utterance  than  is 
the  eye  from  the  ear.  Never  have  there  been 
so  many  pencils,  and  such  excessive  scribbling 
as  in  the  calamopapyrus  ^*  pedagogy  of  to-day 
and  in  this  country.  Not  only  has  the  daily 
theme  spread  as  an  infection,  but  the  daily  les- 
son is  now  extracted  through  the  point  of  a 
pencil  instead  of  from  the  mouth."  ^^ 

**0f  course  the  pupils  must  write,  and  write 
well,  just  as  they  must  read,  and  read  much; 

»G.  S.  HaU,  Youth,  p.  247. 

*•  Pen-paper. 

»  G.  S.  HaU,  Youth,  p.  247, 


122       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

but  English  suffers  from  insisting  upon  this 
double  long  circuit  too  early  and  cultivating  it 
to  excess;  it  devitalizes  school  language  and 
makes  it  a  little  unreal,  like  other  affectations 
of  adult  ways,  so  that  on  escaping  from  its 
thraldom  the  child  and  youth  slump  back  to  the 
language  of  the  street  as  never  before.''  ^® 

**This  is  a  false  application  of  the  principle 
of  learning  to  do  by  doing.  The  young  do  not 
learn  to  write  by  writing,  but  by  reading  and 
hearing.  For  the  young  the  spoken  should 
have  constant  precedence  over  written  words. 
Language  does  its  social  function  best  in  free 
conversation  between  pupils  and  teacher,  pro- 
vided, only  the  topics  and  methods  are  well 
chosen,  and  the  teacher's  mind  is  full  to  over- 
flowing. Nothing  so  sharpens  the  mind  and 
quickens  thought  as  seeking  and  finding  facts 
and  truths  in  common.  To  become  a  good 
writer  one  must  read,  feel,  think,  experience, 
until  he  has  something  to  say  that  others  want 
to  hear.  The  golden  age  of  French  Literature, 
as  Gaston   Deschamps   and   Brunetiere   have 

»Cf.  G.  S.  HaU,  School  Review,  Dec,  1901,  p.  659. 


REQUIRED   SUBJECTS:    ENGLISH  123 

lately  told  us,  was  that  of  the  salon,  when  con- 
versation dominated  letters,  set  fashions,  and 
made  the  charm  of  French  style.  Its  lowest 
ebb  was  when  bookishness  led  and  people  began 
to  talk  as  they  wrote.  The  best  literature  is 
fashioned  on  the  best  conversation,  while  if 
talk  becomes  bookish,  it  loses  vitality."  ^^ 

«  G.  S.  HaU. 


CHAPTER  Vn 

EBQUIEED  subjects:   (CONTINUED) — ^HISTOBY 

Why  should  all  students  be  required  to  study 
at  least  some  phases  of  history  from  prehistoric 
times  to  the  present?  What  is  the  value  or 
the  purpose  of  history!  What  can  and  should 
it  do  for  the  student!  What  phases  of  history 
should  be  emphasized  and,  finally,  what  methods 
should  be  employed  in  teaching  the  subject! 
We  shall  discuss  these  questions  in  the  order 
stated. 

L  THE  VALUE  OF  HISTORY 

The  study  of  history  is  valuable  because  of 
the  knowledge  gained,  and  especially  so  if  the 
essential  facts  of  selected  subjects  are  empha- 
sized.   And  this  some  contend  is  the  funda- 

124 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  125 

mental  purpose.  We  are  told  that  in  addition 
to  getting  a  general  view  of  universal  history 
we  ought  to  emphasize  certain  *' mountain 
peaks'' — ^we  ought  to  form,  if  possible,  an  ade- 
quate conception  of  the  most  notable  things 
done  by  the  human  race.  But  **what  for"  it 
may  be  asked.  Surely  the  study  of  history  is 
not  merely  to  know  what  has  happened  and 
what  man  has  accomplished  in  all  fields  of 
human  endeavor,  although  this  is  highly  desir- 
able. Truth  for  truth's  sake,  or  history  for 
history's  sake  is  important.  We  get  consider- 
able pleasure  just  in  knowing  facts  and  know- 
ing that  we  know.  But  we  cannot  stop  here. 
Kjiowledge  must  be  applied. 

Educators  who  believe  in  the  new  pedagogy 
contend,  and  you  have  heard  the  statement  over 
and  over  again,  that  the  study  of  the  past  helps 
us  to  sympathize  with,  to  explain  and  to  appre- 
ciate the  present,  and  aids  in  solving  contem- 
porary problems  pertaining  to  sociology, 
economics,  and  government.  By  learning  of 
the  successes  and  triumphs  of  the  past  in  these 
fields  of  knowledge,  we  may  profit  by  them,  and 


126        EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

by  learning  of  the  mistakes  and  failures,  we 
may  avoid  them.  Dr.  Jordan  tells  a  story  in 
one  of  his  books  ^  about  a  **  Chinese  emperor 
who  decreed  that  he  was  to  be  first;  that  all 
history  was  to  begin  with  him,  and  that  nothing 
was  to  be  before  him.  But  we  cannot  enforce 
such  a  decree.''  For,  says  Dr.  Jordan,  **We 
are  not  emperors  of  China.  The  world's  work 
and  the  world's  experience  does  not  begin  with 
us.  We  must  know  the  paths  our  predecessors 
have  trodden,  if  we  would  tread  them  farther; 
we  must  stand  upon  their  shoulders — dwarfs 
upon  the  shoulders  of  giants — if  we  would  look 
farther  into  the  future  than  they.  .  .  .  Science, 
philosophy,  statesmanship,  cannot  for  a  mo- 
ment let  go  of  the  past.  The  present  we  know, 
but  we  can  know  it  thoroughly  only  in  the  light 
of  the  past.  What  has  been  must  determine 
what  is,  and  the  present  is  bound  to  the  past 
by  unchanging  law." 

**  Assuming  that  good  citizenship  and  pa- 
triotism are  the  religion  of  the  public  school, 
should  it  not  be  our  prime  object  to  make  in- 

■D.  S.  Jordan,  Care  and  Culture  of  Men,  pp.  4-5. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  127 

telligent  citizen  voters,  and  lay  the  first  stress 
upon  duties  to  the  state  and  society!"^  Can 
this  not  be  done  through  the  study  of  history! 
The  view  that  history  should  prepare  students 
for  citizenship  **is  greatly  emphasized  by  the 
modern  interest  in  sociology  and  the  need  of 
amelioration  and  reform  and  immensely  re-en- 
forced by  the  needs  of  modem  political  and 
social  life. ' '  ^ 

**  Granted  that  history  should  give  a  growing 
self  knowledge  in  the  present  living  progressive 
age,  can  we  truly  fit  for  this  except  by  living 
through  all  the  important  stages  of  the  past  and 
repeating  each  significant  step  by  which  the 
present  was  reached?  .  .  .  Indeed,  is  not  fitting 
for  life  in  the  present,  the  best  way  of  fit- 
ting for  life  in  the  ever  larger  future  T' 

But  this  is  not  all.  Besides  giving  the  stu- 
dent knowledge  of  facts  and  aiding  him  to  see 
the  value  of  the  past  in  explaining  the  present, 
and  helping  him  to  solve  the  contemporary 
problems,  thus  making  him  a  better  citizen,  his- 

«G.  S.  HaU,  Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  285. 
•Ibid.  p.  285. 


128       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

tory  teaches  the  student  **to  think  historically 
and  helps  him  to  acquire  the  habit  of  seeing  all 
events  in  temporal  perspective  *  as  products  of 
growth  and  development.''  '^  It  shows  him  how 
the  law  of  cause  and  effect  works  in  human 
affairs.  Even  if  the  student  is  unable  to  re- 
member many  historical  facts,  he  nevertheless 
** comes  to  see  that  one  thing  leads  to  another; 
he  begins  quite  unconsciously  to  see  that  events 
do  not  simply  succeed  each  other  in  time,  but 
that  one  grows  out  of  another,  or  rather  out 
of  a  combination  of  many  others.  He  thus  ac- 
quires some  power  of  seeing  relationships  and 
detecting  analogies."® 

Again,  courses  in  history  tend  to  establish 
habits  of  correct  thinking  and  sound  methods 
of  study.  And  this  is  just  as  important  as  the 
accumulation  of  information.  '*In  the  ordinary 
class  room,  both  in  science  and  mathematics, 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  discussion,  for 

•  Of.  Professor  Leroy  F.  Jackson's  article,  "A  Single  Aim 
in  History  Teaching"  in  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  Oct., 
1914. 

"G.   S.  Hall,  Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  285. 

•Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  pp.  21-22. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  120 

differences  of  opinion,  for  balancing  of  prob- 
abilities; and  yet  in  every  day  life  we  do  not 
deal  with  mathematical  demonstrations,  or  con- 
cern ourselves  with  scientific  observations;  we 
reach  conclusions,  some  of  them  in  apparent 
conjQiict  with  one  another,  and  none  of  them  sus- 
ceptible of  exact  measurement  and  determina- 
tion/'^ 

Courses  in  history  not  only  **give  training 
in  acquiring  facts,  but  in  arranging  and  sys- 
tematizing them  and  putting  them  forth  as  an 
individual  product.  ...  By  means  of  the  or- 
dinary oral  recitation  if  properly  conducted, 
the  student  may  be  taught  to  express  himself 
in  well  chosen  words.  In  the  study  of  foreign 
language,  he  learns  words  and  sees  distinctions 
in  their  meanings;  in  the  study  of  science,  he 
learns  to  speak  with  technical  exactness  and 
care;  in  the  study  of  history,  while  he  must 
speak  truthfully  and  accurately,  he  must  seek 
to  find  apt  words  of  his  own  with  which  to 
describe  past  conditions  and  to  clothe  his  ideas 
in  a  broad  field  of  work  which  has  no  tech- 

» Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  22. 


130       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

nical  method  of  expression  and  no  peculiar 
phraseology."* 

All  recognize  the  fact  that  the  ability  to 
gather  **  information  is  important,  and  this 
ability  the  study  of  history  cultivates,''  but  the 
ability  to  use  information  *4s  of  greater  im- 
portance,'' and  this  ability  too  is  developed  by 
historical  work.  If  a  student  is  taught  **to  get 
ideas  and  facts  from  various  books,  and  to  put 
these  ideas  and  facts  together  into  a  new  form, 
his  ability  to  make  use  of  knowledge  is  in- 
creased and  strengthened.  .  .  .  He  develops 
capacity  for  effective  work,  not  capacity  for 
absorption  alone.  History  is  also  helpful  in 
developing  what  is  sometimes  called  the  scien- 
tific habit  of  mind  and  thought.  In  a  sense  this 
may  mean  the  habit  of  thorough  investigation 
for  one's  self  of  all  sources  of  information  be- 
fore one  reaches  conclusions  or  expresses  de- 
cided opinions."^  Although  the  student  must 
accept  the  work  of  others,  the  scientific  spirit 
gained  through  the  study  of  history  will  lead 

•Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  26. 
•Ibid.,  p.  23. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  131 

him  to  study  and  examine  many  accounts  and 
cause  him  to  think  long  and  hard  on  the  subject 
under  consideration  before  he  positively  asserts. 
In  connection  with  this,  a  suggestion  to  the 
teacher  might  be  added.  He  should  point  out 
the  advantage  of  approaching  every  question 
without  prejudice,  and  he  should  have  the  stu- 
dent learn  tiiat  **open  mindedness,  candor, 
honesty,  are  requisites"  for  the  attainment  of 
exact  knowledge/® 

In  view  of  these  facts,  a  few  authorities  main- 
tain, and  I  believe  they  are  right,  that  history 
supplies  a  kind  of  intellectual  training  that  can 
be  secured  in  but  few  other  ways.  In  accumu- 
lating ideas,  facts  and  illustrations  from  his- 
tory, by  reading  good  collateral  books  and  by 
constant  efforts  to  re-create  the  real  past  and 
make  it  live  again,  the  student  enlarges  his 
mind,  cultivates  his  perception,  stimulates  and 
exercises  his  imagination,  strengthens  his  mem- 
ory, and  trains  his  judgment.  The  student  must 
weigh  evidence,  draw  inferences,  make  com- 
parisons,   invent    solutions,    and   form   judg- 

"  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  24. 


132       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

ments."  He  is  thus  trained  in  logical  and 
philosophical  reasoning. 

Again  the  study  of  history  trains  in  the  use 
of  books.  It  aids  the  student  in  learning  how 
and  where  to  find  information.  There  is,  per- 
haps, no  study  which  offers  such  opportuni- 
ties as  history  does  for  gaining  facility  in  using 
books  and  in  securing  desired  material,  and 
this  is  a  highly  important  result  of  historical 
study,  for  no  man  can  be  considered  educated 
unless  he  knows  how  and  where  to  find  informa- 
tion. In  fact,  **the  inability  to  discover  what 
a  book  contains  or  where  information  may  be 
found,  is  one  of  the  common  failings  of  the  un- 
schooled and  untrained  man."  " 

Furthermore,  history,  if  presented  in  the 
right  way,  will  inspire  the  student.     He  will 

"If  this  be  the  value  of  history,  much  responsibility 
rests  upon  the  teacher.  The  problem  is  to  get  the  student 
**to  weigh  evidence,  draw  accurate  inferences,  make  fair 
comparisons,  invent  solutions  and  form  judgments;"  this 
Is  the  serious  problem  in  teaching  history  as  it  is  in  all 
education  for  efficiency  according  to  Dr.  Eliot.  (O.  W. 
Eliot's  Education  for  Efficiency  and  the  New  Definition  of 
the  Cultivated  Man,  p.  18,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York, 
1909.) 

"Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  25. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  133 

desire  to  go  farther — to  see  and  explore  new 
fields;  thus  the  habit  of  research  and  a  taste 
for  good  reading  will  be  cultivated.  This  aim, 
however,  is  not  fulfilled  at  present,  for  too 
much  time  is  devoted  to  '*  lesson  setting  and 
hearing''  and  there  is  **too  much  examination 
of  the  memory  which  always  makes  learning 
superficial.  .  .  .  Precious  time  is  lost  in  hear- 
ing recitations  which  should  be  given  to  inspir- 
ing and  suggesting.''"  If  the  student  is 
compelled  to  make  a  minute  analysis  of  the  text 
and  required  to  memorize  much  of  it,  he  has 
little  time  for  supplementary  reading.  Even 
when  this  method  is  not  followed  and  when  the 
student  has  time  for  collateral  reading,  often 
it  is  not  suited  to  his  interests  and  capacities. 
Books  on  the  lives  of  great  men  and  women 
should  be  studied  diligently.  If  we  are  to  es- 
tablish the  habit  of  research  and  cultivate  a 
taste  for  good  reading,  we  must  allow  the  stu- 
dent more  freedom  in  selecting  his  collateral 
reading  and  encourage  him  to  relate  the  events 

"G.  E.  Partridge,  Genetic  Pliilosophy  of  Education,  p. 
270. 


134       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

in  tlie  classroom  that  appeal  to  him.  The  stu- 
dent will  be  stimulated  to  read  more  if  he  is 
permitted  to  tell  of  the  things  that  are  inter- 
esting, unusual,  striking,  and  impressive. 

Finally,  history,  when  taught  as  it  should  be, 
instills  in  the  mind  of  the  student  high  ideals, 
gives  a  sense  of  appreciation,  teaches  morality 
by  stimulating  thought  and  interest  in  the 
moral  behavior  of  men  and  races,  develops  a 
healthy  philosophy  of  life,  and  thus  aids  in  the 
formation  and  development  of  character.  This 
is  the  poiQt  most  emphasized  by  Dr.  Hall  in 
his  discussion  of  the  subject.  He  says  that 
** there  must  be  one  dominant  aim  (in  teaching 
history)  to  which  all  others,  while  not  eliminated 
should  be  subordinated."  If  the  high  school 
teacher  will  **take  his  cue  from  the  nature  and 
needs  of  youth,  the  highest  criterion  of  all 
educational  value  .  .  .  the  moral  aim  will  be 
found  fittest  to  be  ijaade  supreme.  This  con- 
clusion is  not  based  chiefly  on  the  fact  that  in 
every  land  the  percentage  of  juvenile  crime  is 
both  increasing  and  becoming  more  precocious, 
significant  as  this  indication  is  of  the  general 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  135 

need,  but  on  the  fact  that  ethical  purposes  by 
their  very  nature  can  best  include  and  har- 
monize while  they  also  overtop  all  others.'' " 

**  Especially  at  adolescence  the  moral  pur- 
pose of  history  should  never  be  lost  from  sight. 
It  should  determine  every  choice,  both  of 
method,  and  subject  matter'*  in  the  history 
courses  in  high  school.  **  History  should  so  im- 
press intelligence  and  will  as  to  inspire  to  the 
greatest  degree  ideals  of  social  service  and  un- 
selfishness." " 

**Does  not  history  fill  all,  and  must  it  not 
especially  for  the  young  suggest  as  its  supreme 
lesson  the  power  in  man  and  nature  that  makes 
for  righteousness,  and  is  it  not  this  that  the 
progress  of  events  from  age  to  age  reveals  ever 
more  clearly?"  ^*  Bunsen  spoke  of  God  in  His- 
tory.^^  Few  would  define  history  as  Gibbon  did 
when  he  called  it  a  **  record  of  crime,  folly,  and 
calamity.  For  Luther  as  for  Salzmann,  it  was 
a  thesaurus  of  inspiring  ethical  examples  to 

"G.  S.  HaU,  Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  286. 
"Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  267. 
"G.  S.  Hall,  Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  296. 
"Ibid.,  p.  296. 


136       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

show  how  all  got  their  deserts  in  the  end.  For 
Schmidt  it  was  to  illustrate  God's  ways  in  the 
world.  For  Thomas  Arnold  it  demonstrated 
the  power  working  for  righteousness,  and  was 
to  give  a  practical  philosophy  of  life.  For 
Droysen,  it  warns  by  showing  the  blindness, 
temptation  and  folly  of  men,  and  inspires  them 
by  contagion  to  the  emulation  of  the  greatest 
deeds  of  the  greatest  and  best  men  of  the 
past.""  For  Chas.  W.  Eliot,  ** History  shows 
the  young  the  springs  of  public  honor  and  dis- 
honor; sets  before  them  the  national  failings, 
weaknesses  and  sins ;  warns  them  agaiifst  future 
dangers  by  exhibiting  the  losses  and  sufferings 
of  the  past;  enshrines  in  their  hearts  the  na- 
tional heroes  and  strengthens  in  them  the 
precious  love  of  country/'" 

Summary 

There  are   several  good  reasons  wEj^  all 
should  study  history: 
First :  This  study  is  valuable  because  of  the 

»  G.  S.  Hall,  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II,  p.  296. 
»C.  W.  Eliot,  Educational  Reform,  p.  105. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  137 

knowledge  gained,  and  especially  so  if  the  es- 
sential facts  of  selected  subjects  are  empha- 
sized. 

Second:  It  helps  one  to  understand  and  to 
appreciate  the  present  and  aids  in  solving  con- 
temporary problems  pertaining  to  sociology, 
economics,  and  government. 

Third:  History  teaches  the  student  to  think 
historically  and  helps  him  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  seeing  all  events  in  temporal  perspective,  as 
the  products  of  growth  and  development. 

Fourth:  It  aids  the  student  in  establishing 
habits  of  correct  thinking  and  sound  methods 
of  study,  and  supplies  a  most  fruitful  kind  of 
intellectual  training,  which  is  fully  as  important 
as  the  accumulation  of  information. 

Fifth:  The  study  of  history  trains  the  stu- 
dent in  the  use  of  books,  and  this  is  a  highly 
important  reason  for  studying  history,  for  no 
man  is  considered  educated  to-day  who  does 
not  know  how  and  where  to  find  information. 

Sixth :  History,  if  presented  in  the  right  way, 
will  inspire  the  student.  He  will  desire  to  go 
farther — to  see  and  explore  new  fields,  and  thus 


138       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

the  habit  of  research  and  a  taste  for  good  read- 
ing will  be  cultivated. 

Seventh:  It  instills  in  the  mind  of  the  stu- 
dent high  ideals,  gives  a  sensetof  appreciation, 
teaches  morality  by  stimulating  thought  and 
interest  in  moral  behavior  of*  men  and  races, 
develops  a  healthy  philosophy  of  life,  and 
thus  aids  in  the  formation  and  development  of 
character. 

n.  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

Since  the  teacher  should  think  more  of 
quality  than  of  quantity  of  work,  and  since 
quality  and  quantity  of  work  rarely  go  together, 
the  question  naturally  arises,  what  events  and 
phases  of  history  should  be  emphasized!  There 
are  so  many  facts  to  consider  that  the  teacher 
has  time  only  for  the  essentials.  Events  great 
in  their  consequences,  it  is  generally  conceded, 
should  be  selected  and  emphasized.  Just  facts 
that  are  characteristic  should  be  stressed. 

If  we  accept  this,  the  next  question  to  be  an- 
swered is :  From  what  field  shall  we  select  most 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  139 

of  the  characteristic  facts — from  political  his- 
tory or  from  the  history  of  civilization?  His- 
torians are  beginning  to  agree  that  the  former 
should  not  be  emphasized  as  much  as  the  latter. 
However,  they  do  not  contend  that  political  his- 
tory or  that  part  of  history  dealing  with  wars, 
dynasties,  and  political  parties  should  be 
eliminated,  but  that  the  history  of  civilization 
should  receive  far  more  attention  than  it  has 
in  the  past;  and,  that  the  time  devoted  to 
political  history  should  be  greatly  reduced. 

Any  fact  of  supreme  importance  in  whatever 
field  found  should  be  selected  and  emphasized, 
for  one  should  form,  if  possible,  an  adequate 
conception  of  the  most  notable  things  that  have 
happened,  and  of  what  man  has  accomplished 
in  all  fields  of  human  endeavor.  Much  time 
should  be  devoted  to  biography  and  social  his- 
tory. In  the  past  the  ordinary  text-books,  and 
consequently  the  schools,  have  stressed  prin- 
cipally military  history  and  politics.  At  pres- 
ent the  concensus  of  educational  opinion  seems 
to  be  that  our  future  courses  should  deal  not 
merely  with  wars,  politics  and  rulers,  but  rather 


140       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE. 

with  the  arts  and  occupations  of  peace,  with 
science,  morals,  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, language,  literature,  religious  ideas  and 
institutions,  commerce  and  industry,  social  and 
economic  conditions,  modern  imperialism,  social 
life  and  general  culture,  the  humanitarian 
movements,  education  and  philanthropy. 

To-day,  writers  on  the  pedagogy  of  history 
are  practically  unanimous  in  asserting  that 
wars  especially  have,  in  the  past,  received  too 
much  attention.  Take  the  history  of  our  own 
country,  for  example.  *' There  was  a  time," 
according  to  a  well-known  authority,^^  **when 
textbooks  indicated  that  the  Revolution,  the 
Mexican  War,  and  the  Civil  War  with  a  few 
connecting  paragraphs,  were  about  all  that 
were  necessary  to  record.  Such  treatment  now 
seems  ridiculous  in  the  light  of  the  splendid 
achievements  of  peace.''  The  following  state- 
ment taken  from  the  preface  of  a  recent  text- 
book ^^  indicates  the  present  tendency  of  his- 

*»  Professor  Edmund  S.  Meany,  Suggestions  to  Teachers 
In  his  United  States  History  for  Schools,  MacmiUan  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1912. 

«HaU,  Smither  and  Ousley,  Student's  History  of  Our 
Country,  Southern  Publishing  Co.,  DaUas,  Texas,  1912. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  141 

torical  writing:  *' Short  biographical  sketches 
of  many  of  our  great  countrymen  are  given 
because  the  lives  of  leaders  typify  the  people 
they  lead.  Deeds  of  heroism  and  human  in- 
terest have  been  related  as  space  would  allow. 
The  labors  of  peace  no  less  than  the  strife  of 
conflict  show  forth  the  spirit,  the  character,  and 
the  growth  of  a  people,  and  particular  stress 
is  laid  upon  social  and  economic  history  as  re- 
vealing the  most  potential  forces  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  a  nation  and  the  most  important  factors 
in  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  its  people." 
Professors  Hart  and  Channing  maintain  that 
there  is  no  general  method  suited  to  all  ages 
or  circumstances  or  minds,  or  even  to  all  parts 
of  the  subject.  Perhaps  the  most  fruitful 
method  for  pupils  of  the  grammar  school  age 
and  above  is  the  **topicaP' — the  assignment  of 
very  limited  subjects  on  which  pupils  are  to 
prepare  themselves  with  special  care,  using  a 
variety  of  material.  The  advantages  of  such 
a  system  are  obvious ;  it  breaks  up  the  servile 
adherence  to  the  limited  text  of  a  single  book; 
it  trains  in  the  use  of  books,  in  the  selection 


142        EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

of  pertinent  facts  out  of  a  mass  of  material; 
it  leads  to  the  comparison  of  authors,  the  ex- 
planation of  discrepancies,  the  weighing  of 
authorities;  it  adds  life  and  interest  to  the 
work. 

Dr.  Hall  emphasizes  the  importance  of  a  text- 
book when  he  says:  ** While  pleading  for  more 
and  better  oral  narrative  teaching  we  should 
surely  always  have  a  good  text-book  to  anchor 
to;"  "  and  in  regard  to  the  lecture  method  he 
maintains  that  *4t  is  not  so  much  the  abolition 
of  the  lecture  method  that  is  wanted  in  the  high 
school  as  the  transformation  from  monologue 
to  dialogue  or  a  kind  of  active  teaching  that 
involves  constant  response  and  is  punctuated 
with  question  and  answer.'' 

In  most  high  schools.  Dr.  Hall  thinks  precious 
time  is  lost  in  hearing  recitations  which  should 
be  given  to  inspiring  and  suggesting.  **Note 
taking  with  some  dictation,  if  careful  and  judi- 
cious, is  a  grateful  variant  for  the  pupil  and 
gives  the  teacher  by  simple  inspection  perhaps 
the  best  of  all  tests  for  promotion.   The  library, 

"Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  293. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  143 

collateral  reading,  with  co-operative  methods 
and  efforts,  learning  to  work  together  and  to 
work  for  the  common  good,  suggest  also  a  much 
larger  collection  of  books  and  a  comparative 
use  of  them  in  every  school  and  may  mark  a 
new  epoch  in  the  habits  of  study. ' '  ^^ 

**Too  many  maps,  even  large  ones  from  the 
government,  too  incessant  reference  to  geog- 
raphy, and  especially  too  many  pictures, 
lantern  slides,  perhaps  games  with  historical 
cards,  it  seems  to  me,  some  authorities  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding,  we  can  hardly  have. 
Colored  chronological  charts  of  both  universal 
history  and  that  of  special  countries,  genealog- 
ical schemes  of  dynasties  and  reigning  families, 
statistical  diagrams  from  the  census  depart- 
ment, curves  of  financial,  industrial,  and  vital 
data,  the  cycle  and  spiral  method — seems  to 
be  too  little  favored  by  The  Committee  of 
Seven.''" 

**Are  not  both  the  unit  block  and  the  inten- 
sive method  involving  any  high  degree  of  ae- 

"  Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  293. 
••Ibid.,   p.   293. 


144       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

curacy  and  detail  too  academic  and  should  the 
high  school  teacher  have  to  think  much  of  satis- 
fying college  entrance  examinations?  Is  that 
teacher  not  a  poor  devil,  in  the  printer's  sense 
at  least,  who  brings  into  much  prominence  the 
collecting  of,  and  class  work  upon,  old  entrance 
examination  papers!  ^^  Should  he  not  sow  a 
great  deal  of  seed  upon  the  waters  which  he 
never  expects  to  see  again  in  recitation  or  ex- 
amination, and  trust  something  to  the  intuitive 
apperceptive  powers  of  the  young!  ^®  Does  not 
the  examination  type  of  memory  often  tend  to 
keep  things  near  the  surface  and  in  the  merely 
cognitive  stage  that  should  sink  deeper  and  at 
once  affect  conduct  and  character?'' ^^ 

Although  Dr.  Hall  is  opposed  to  the  examina- 
tion type  of  memory,  he  nevertheless  believes 
in  the  accumulation  of  significant  facts.  How- 
ever, he  contends  it  is  not  always  necessary  to 
arrange  these  facts  in  logical  order,  for  he  says 
that  **some  teachers  have  come  to  fear  that  the 


"Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  293. 
"•Ibid.,  p.  294. 
"Ibid.,  p.  294. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  145 

pupil  in  the  high  school  is  actually  in  danger 
of  accumulating  a  mass  of  undigested,  unsys- 
tematized knowledge  and  perhaps  to  fancy  that 
this  peril  is  awful  and  ever  impending.  But 
have  any  of  us  ever  seen  a  dangerous  mass  of 
knowledge  in  any  youthful  mind  unless  in  the 
memory  of  a  freak,  and  even  then  are  we  so 
oblivious  to  the  laws  of  mental  work  and 
growth  as  to  think  that  such  a  mass  of  erudi- 
tion could  exist  in  the  mind  without  being  as- 
similated in  the  child's  manner,  or  that  even  if 
it  were  a  floating  plankton,  our  petty  artificial 
devices  of  correlating,  associating,  linking  can 
have  any  other  possible  effect  than  to  prevent 
it  from  sinking  deep  into  the  soul  and  keep- 
ing it  on  the  surface  against  the  day  of  ex- 
amination?"^^ 

''History  is  a  story  to  be  told,  not 
crammed."^®  ** There  should  not  be  too  much 
accuracy  tind  detail  in  teaching,  for  this  hampers 
the  larger  view.  If  the  teacher  follows  this  sug- 
gestion he  should  not  be  afraid  of  the  charge 

"  Educational  Problems,  II,  p.  295. 
"Ibid.,  p.  300. 


146        EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

of  being  unsystematic  and  superficial,  pro- 
vided he  can  thus  better  convey  his  message'* 
and  approximately  fulfill  the  aims  of  historical 
study.  There  is  a  place  for  superficiality,  Dr. 
Hall  thinks,  which  is  not  sufficiently  recognized 
by  high  school  teachers  of  history.  *  *  Connected- 
ness, completeness  and  unity  are  not  needed  in 
the  history  work  up  to  the  time  of  college. 
Rather  the  striking,  the  impressive,  that  which 
may  have  the  deepest  moral  effect,  must  be 
selected,  and  the  dullness  of  sequences  and 
casual  chains  avoided.  The  child  must  be  af- 
fected, must  absorb  and  imbibe,  and  there  must 
not  be  too  much  learning  of  facts,  nor  training 
of  the  judgment  and  reason.  .  .  .  History  must 
be  made  to  impart  the  power  that  makes  for 
righteousness.  .  .  .  The  difference,  at  the  great- 
est, is  between  learning  a  few  dates  and  facts 
and  having  the  mind  filled  with  moral  lessons 
and  ideals  which  will  remain  as  living  forces 
throughout  life,  influencing  conduct  in  fields 
very  remote  from  all  the  lessons  set  or 
taught.'' ^^ 

"The  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  260-71. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  147 

The  assignments  in  history  should  be  given 
in  such  a  way  that  the  students  will  know  ex- 
actly what  they  are  expected  to  learn.  Aside 
from  assigning  a  very  few  pages  in  the  text, 
the  teacher  should  point  out  some  of  the  most 
important  things  for  the  students  to  stress  in 
their  collateral  reading.  He  ought  to  give  them 
something  definite  to  do— a  question  to  answer, 
a  topic  to  discuss,  an  outline  to  make,  a  problem 
to  solve.  (Often  half  the  recitation  period 
should  be  devoted  to  debating  some  important 
historical  question.)  If  the  teacher  assigns 
well-chosen  topics,  questions,  and  problems 
that  are  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils 
and  by  requiring  them  to  gather  their  informa- 
tion from  various  books,  papers,  and  magazines 
the  pupils  are  trained  to  collect  historical  ma- 
terial, to  arrange  it,  and  to  put  it  forth.  This 
practice^  we  repeat,  develops  capacity  for  effec- 
tive work,  not  capacity  for  absorption  alone." 

This  thought  cannot  be  repeated  too  often: 
The  library,  collateral  reading,  with  co-opera- 
tive methods  and  efforts,  learning  to  work  to- 

"  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  23. 


148       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

gether  and  to  work  for  the  common  good, 
suggest  also  a  much  larger  collection  of  books 
and  a  comparative  use  of  them  in  every  school. 
In  assigning  collateral  reading,  the  teacher 
should  ask  the  students  to  read  books  suited 
to  their  interests  and  capabilities,  and  those 
phases  of  history  which  have  the  deepest  moral 
effect,  as  just  mentioned,  should  be  stressed. 
For  this  purpose  the  lives  of  great  men  and 
women  should  be  studied  in  high  school  far 
more  than  they  are  at  present. 

**The  use  of  the  note-book  to  supplement  and 
occasionally  replace  the  former  straight  text- 
book course  is  largely  an  outgrowth  of,  or  at 
least  a  close  analogy  to,  the  laboratory  method 
of  science.  It  grows  out  of  an  effort  to  make 
knowledge  concrete  and  definite,  first  hand,  and 
authoritative.  The  note-book  has  small  use  if 
notes  are  based  entirely  upon  the  text.''  When 
notes  include  a  few  extracts  from  "source  and 
parallel  reading,  illustrations,  and  corrective 
and  supplementary  comments  by  teacher,  with 
best  of  all  some  reflections  and  comparisons  by 
the  student  himself,  the  kinship  with  the  labora- 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:   HISTORY  149 

tory  method  becomes  apparent.  K  it  were 
practicable  to  go  farther  and  require  students 
to  draw  sketches  showing  and  comparing  ele- 
ments of  architecture,  illustrating  costumes  and 
geography,  representing  plants  and  animals, 
weapons  and  tools,  and  other  things  of  his- 
torical importance  which  might  be  studied  in 
museums,  pictures,  stereopticon  views,  build- 
ings, etc.,  these  sketches,  with  the  notes,  would 
approach  the  laboratory  method  even  more 
closely.  If  this  were  done  wisely,  history 
teaching  would  be  much  more  effective,''  but 
it  cannot  be  done  to  any  extent  because  it  takes 
too  much  time.  However,  if  the  students  were 
given  a  day  or  two  **off"  occasionally  from 
their  studies,  the  time  could  be  profitably  spent. 
If  the  sources  of  history  study  are  drawn 
from  a  wide  range  of  readings  and  illustrations, 
the  note-book  becomes  a  necessity.  Some  of 
the  work  should  be  written  with  care,  so  that, 
it  may  be  preserved  in  later  life  with  justifiable 
pride.  In  practice  the  note-book  may  be  of 
more  importance  than  the  text-book.^* 

"J.  E.  Pearce,  "The  Use  of  the  Note  Book,"  In  the  Texas 
History  Teacher's  Bulletin,  Nov.  15,  1913. 


150       EDUCATIO]^  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

''Notes  should  be  taken  upon  some  of  the 
assigned  and  other  supplementary  reading. 
The  advantages  are  obvious.  It  places  the 
garnered  information  in  definite  and  effective 
relation  with  the  organized  course;  it  enables 
the  teacher  to  check  up  assigned  reading  and 
lastly,  it  forces  the  student  to  reproduce  in 
written  form  the  gist  of  his  reading  and  to  sift 
and  pass  judgment  upon  it.  Student  made  out- 
lines based  upon  the  text  and  written  into  the 
notes  are,  I  think,  always  more  helpful  than 
even  the  best  printed  ones.  If  a  student  or- 
ganizes the  subject  matter  himself,  he  is  com- 
pelled to  seek  and  find  relations.  This  is  always 
worth  while,  even  if  done  clumsily.  These  out- 
lines may  often  be  a  part  of  a  good  general 
epitome. "  ^^ 

Finally,  the  main  advantage  of  the  note-book 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:  It  forces  the 
student  into  habits  of  accuracy  particularly  if 
his  notes  are  examined  by  someone  else.  Ex- 
amination of  the  note-book  and  the  correction 
of  errors  is  essential.    It  may  be  done  by  the 

"  J.  E.  Pearce,  "The  Use  of  the  Note  Book,"  in  the  Texas 
History  Teacher's  Bulletin,  Nov.  15,  1913. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  151 

students  themselves  and  will  be  a  valuable 
exercise.  There  is  no  difficulty  involved.  Let 
the  students  exchange  books,  make  corrections 
and  return  to  the  teacher,  and  the  teacher  will 
have  a  fair  indication  of  the  accuracy  and 
character  of  the  notes  with  little  effort.  The 
student,  on  the  other  hand,  has  benefited  by  the 
criticism,  in  that  he  has  discovered  what  is 
correct,  and  what  is  incorrect.  Even  outlines 
should  generally  be  thrown  into  the  form  of 
clear  and  definite  sentences  for  the  sake  of  cor- 
rect habits  of  expression." 

The  views  expressed  in  the  last  few  para- 
graphs present  perhaps  the  best  theory  in  regard 
to  the  history  note-book  and  supplementary 
reading,  but  difficult  indeed  to  put  in  actual 
practice  because  the  student  generally  has  three 
other  courses  in  addition  to  history. 

The  instructor  in  history  should  be  careful 

not  to  insist  on  too  much  work  and  should  not 

expect  the  same  amount  from  every  member 

of  the  class,  for  to  some  students  history  is 

exceedingly  difficult  to  learn.    Work  should  be 

*•  J.  B.  Pearce,  "The  Use  of  the  Note  Book,"  in  the  Texas 
History  Teacher's  Bulletin,  Nov.  15,  1913. 


152       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

done  according  to  ability,  all  of  us  realize;  but, 
whether  it  is  difl&cult  or  not,  all  students  should 
gain  some  important  knowledge  of  selected  sub- 
jects even  if  it  has  to  be  secured  by  special 
written  reports.  If  the  student  has  the  desire 
to  learn  and  the  ability  to  think  long  and  hard 
on  the  subject,  the  aims  of  historical  study  will 
be  fulfilled  approximately,  and  much  good  will 
be  accomplished.  It  will,  I  repeat,  instill  in  the 
mind  of  the  student  high  ideals,  will  give  a 
sense  of  appreciation,  will  develop  a  healthy 
philosophy  of  life,  and  will  aid  in  the  formation 
and  development  of  character.  It  will  help  to 
establish  sound  methods  of  study,  and  will 
supply  excellent  intellectual  training.  The  ac- 
curacy of  conception  and  statement  required, 
the  mastery  of  principles,  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems— all  these  develop  habits  of  mind  of  the 
most  healthful  and  useful  kind.  There  is  hardly 
any  business  in  which  the  processes  employed 
in  studying  history  are  not  in  constant  use,  and 
there  can  be  no  position  in  life  in  which  the 
mental  discipline  gained  is  valueless;  while  the 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  ^53 

facts  learned  are  almost  indispensable  to  every 
cultured  man  and  woman. 


m.  HISTORY  RECITATION  SOCIALIZED 

7.  The  Aims  of  the  Plan:^ 

1.  To  do  away  with  passivity  in  the  class- 
room. 

2.  To  stimulate  initiative  and  originality. 

3.  To  correct  wrong  impressions. 

4.  To  train  the  pupil  in  expression. 

5.  To  enlarge  the  pupil's  experience. 

6.  To  help  the  pupil  overcome  individual 
weaknesses. 

7.  To  enable  the  pupil  to  form  the  habit  of 
concentrated  effort  and  attention. 

8.  To  build  up  in  an  orderly,  logical  way,  a 
definite  store  of  information. 

>  W.  T.  Whitney  in  his  monograph,  The  Socialized  Recita- 
tion (A.  S.  Barnes  Co.,  New  York  City),  gives  some  of 
the  aims  stated  above  imder  the  heading  "Purpose  of  the 
SodaUzed  Recitation"  but  most  of  them  are  given  as 
"Objects"  of  the  recitation;  i.  e.,  the  ordinary  recitation. 
It  seems  to  me  that  aU  may  be  presented  as  the  "Aims 
of  the   Socialized  Recitation.'* 


154       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

9.  To  enable  the  pupil  to  express  his  own  in- 
dividuality and  to  receive  a  modifying  influence 
from  the  class. 

10.  To  give  opportunity  for  the  student  to 
do  and  to  he  rather  than  merely  to  know,  by 
thinking,  reasoning,  judging,  and  making  de- 
cisions. 

77.  How  My  Classes  in  History  Are  Conducted 

Often  the  assignment  is  given  in  the  form 
of  a  problem  with  references,  but  if  no  suitable 
problem  can  be  found  in  the  lesson  for  the  day, 
the  assignment  is  made  as  follows: 

The  lesson  is  divided  into  two  or  three  parts 
and  a  leader  is  assigned  for  each  part.  The 
duty  of  each  leader  is  to  outline  his  part  of 
the  lesson,  prepare  questions  and  gather  out- 
side information  pertaining  to  every  subdivi- 
sion of  his  outline  and  bearing  on  all  the 
questions  he  has  prepared. 

In  the  recitation,  from  such  an  assignment, 
the  leaders  who  have  made  special  preparation 
(as  given  in  the  preceding  paragraph)  are  re- 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  155 

quested  to  question  the  class  just  as  the  teacher 
would.  Volunteers  are  not  called  upon  until 
two  other  pupils  have  attempted  to  answer  the 
question.  If  the  two  students  do  not  satisfy 
the  leader  and  the  other  students,  volunteers 
are  called  upon  to  correct  any  errors  or  to  give 
additional  information. 

The  members  of  the  class  are  allowed  to  ask 
any  questions  not  previously  made  clear  or  they 
may  present  new  questions.  Then  volunteers 
present  new  material  based  on  collateral  read- 
ing. The  leader  finally  offers  his  additional  in- 
formation. In  case  all  the  important  points 
are  not  brought  out  clearly,  the  teacher  asks 
his  questions  in  order  to  emphasize  those  es- 
sentials. 

The  new  plan  tends  to  make  the  students 
active,  happy,  earnest,  hard-working,  enthu- 
siastic, and  democratic. 

The  Socialised  Recitation  is  *'an  example  of 
true  democracy,  development  of  all,  through 
all,  under  the  leadership  of  the  test  students" 
and  the  teacher,^ 

*  Report  to  the  Seattle  High  School  History  Teachers. 


156       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

Conversations  and  discussions  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  class  circle.  Discussions,  ques- 
tions, criticisms  are  between  pupils  with  the 
teacher  only  occasionally  drawn  in.  There  is 
quite  a  contrast  between  this  plan  and  the  old, 
when  the  recitation  was  always  between  teacher 
and  some  pupil. 

The  teacher  is  a  guide  and  does  not  do  the 
reciting  for  the  class.  He  encourages  both 
freedom  and  desire  to  offer  additional  facts  or 
to  make  inquiry  concerning  points  discussed. 
Most  of  the  corrections  are  noticed  and  dis- 
cussed by  the  pupils.  In  this  phase  of  the  work, 
the  students  are  advised  to  make  constructive, 
rather  than  destructive  criticisms. 

If  the  students  allow  misstatements  of  facts 
to  go  unchallenged,  or  if  they  permit  unsup- 
ported expression  of  personal  opinion  to  escape, 
the  teacher's  work  is  evident:  He  corrects 
errors,  criticises,  and  supplements  the  work  of 
the  students.  However,  he  takes  part  only  when 
necessary.  Generally  the  teacher  merely  di- 
rects the  work,  counsels  with  the  pupils,  advises 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  157 

and  leads,  without  dominating  and  suppressing 
the  physical  and  mental  life  within  the  room. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  new  plan  takes  time. 
**Yes,  training,  development,  growth,  always 
take  time.  A  fence  can  be  built  around  a  school 
in  one  day  by  a  large  force  of  men,  but  if  a 
hedge  is  to  be  grown,  it  may  require  years. 
Mushrooms  attain  their  full  power  in  a  night, 
oaks  require  decades."® 

In  nearly  every  class  there  are  at  least  a  few 
students  having  initiative  who  show  good  judg- 
ment and  ability  in  analyzing  subject-matter, 
general  principles  and  their  organic  relations 
and  who  express  thought  in  a  clear  and  con- 
vincing maimer.  One  of  such  qualifications  is  ap- 
pointed secretary.  After  each  discussion  on  an 
important  topic  the  secretary  is  requested  to 
present  the  essentials  and  to  state  the  main 
conclusions,  or  announce  the  desirability  of 
further  investigation. 

Often,  when  some  important  question  arises 
which  cannot  be  settled  by  the  students  at  the 

•J.  p.  Zlmmers,  Teaching  Boys  and  Girls  How  to  Study. 
The  Parker  Educational  Co.,  Madison,  Wisconsin.    19ia 


158        EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

time,  the  class  is  given  a  few  days — sometimes 
longer — for  study  and  research.  Last  year,  for 
example,  in  discussing  the  government  of  Eng- 
land one  boy  said  that  he  had  heard  that  the 
English  government  is  more  democratic  than 
our  own.  The  members  of  the  class  immediately 
took  sides  in  a  discussion  which  followed.  As 
they  were  unable  to  convince  each  other,  they 
decided  to  have  a  debate  on  the  question. 
Nearly  every-  member  of  the  class  spent  a  half- 
hour  or  so  about  every  day  for  two  weeks  study- 
ing in  order  to  get  *  *  evidence ' '  to  prove  or  dis- 
prove that  the  American  government  is  more 
democratic  than  the  English  government.  And 
if  the  study  of  government  is  important,  who 
will  say  that  the  time  was  not  profitably  spent 
in  investigating  the  working  of  two  of  the  most 
democratic  governments  in  the  world! 

III.   The  Problem  Method  and  the  Socialized 
Recitation* 

Dr.  William  T.  Bawden  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  suggested  that  a  state- 
•By  a  High  School  Student— Miss  Marian  Tworoger. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  159 

ment  of  the  types  of  problems  selected  for  dis- 
cussion by  the  students,  be  presented  together 
with  an  analysis  of  one  or  two  problems  with 
statements  as  to  just  how  the  students  handled 
the  parts  assigned  to  them.  The  following  will, 
it  is  hoped,  fulfill  these  requests.  The  problems 
given  below  are  just  a  few  of  the  many  studied 
in  the  history  course. 

1.  Prove  that  James  I  tried  to  hinder  the 
growth  of  Democracy. 

2.  Prove  that  the  Constitution  provides  for 
careful  and  deliberate  legislation. 

3.  Prove  that  Arbitration  has  already  been 
of  great  value  in  settling  disputes. 

4.  Prove  that  the  time  from  1783  to  1789  was 
the  ** Critical  Period"  in  American  history. 

5.  Prove  that  the  American  government  is 
more  democratic  than  the  English  government. 

6.  Prove  that  the  Versailles  peace  conference 
(1919)  was  more  progressive  than  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  (1814-1815). 

The  problem  selected  for  analysis  was  studied 
in  connection  with  the  making  of  the  Con- 
stitution. 


160       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

Text;  Muzzey's  **  American  History." 
Chapter  VI,  Pages  159-183. 

Collateral  Reading: 

John  Fiske,  The  Critical  Period  in  American 
History. 

Bassett,  a  Short  History  of  the  United  States. 

McLaughlin,  The  Confederation  and  the  Con- 
stitution. 

Roosevelt,  Winning  of  the  West,  and  other 
references  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

Our  class  spent  three  days  in  considering  the 
problem:  ** Prove  that  the  National  Convention 
of  1787  solved  the  difficulties  existing  under  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  by  giving  the  people 
of  the  United  States  the  Constitution.''  When 
the  problem  was  assigned,  the  class  discussed 
it  and  found  that  it  could  be  divided  into  five 
parts,  namely,  1 — old  conditions,  2 — defects  of 
the  confederation,  3 — ^the  problem,  what  to  do, 
4 — the  solution,  what  happened,  5 — favorable 
results.  Each  of  these  points  was  assigned  to 
one  or  more  of  the  students,  who  made  a  special 
study  of  it,  and  in  the  recitation  the  following 
day^  each  in  turn  took  the  floor  and  questioned 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  161 

the  class  upon  his  point,  and  acted  as  leader 
during  the  ensuing  discussion,  and  finally,  pre- 
sented to  the  class  the  material  gained  through 
his  collateral  reading. 

Under  the  first  point — old  conditions — ^we 
discussed  the  conditions  which  made  the  colon- 
ists attempt  some  form  of  union,  the  early 
attempts  at  union,  and  the  confederation.  In 
considering  the  second  part — the  defects  of  the 
confederation — it  was  brought  out  that  under 
the  Articles  of  Confederation,  Congress  con- 
sisted of  only  one  house,  in  which  all  the  states 
had  an  equal  number  of  votes.  The  students 
further  emphasized  the  idea  that  this  congress 
was  based  on  the  representation  of  the  states 
rather  than  the  people ;  the  government  had  no 
executive  or  judicial  departments;  and  the 
Congress  had  little  executive  power;  e.g.,  it 
could  make  treaties  but  could  not  compel  the 
states  to  obey  them ;  could  apportion  taxes,  but 
could  not  collect  them.  '*  Congress  could  advise, 
request  and  implore,  but  could  not  command.'' 
We  showed  that  as  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion could  be  amended  only  by  a  unanimous 


162       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

vote  of  the  states,  it  was  impossible  to  remedy 
these  defects,  so  we  took  up  the  third  point,  the 
problem — what  to  do.  Under  this  heading  we 
discussed  the  problems  which  confronted  the 
makers  of  the  Constitution : 

The  Virginia  and  New  Jersey  plans,  the 
slavery  question,  the  question  of  taxes,  the 
representation  of  negroes,  the  control  of  com- 
merce, and  the  other  difficulties  which  had  to 
be  solved  by  the  Constitutional  Convention. 
Fourth,  the  solution — ^what  happened,  was  a 
discussion  of  the  constitution  as  finally  adopted, 
bringing  out  particularly  the  compromises 
reached  between  the  various  factions,  such  as 
those  concerning  the  representation  of  large  and 
small  states,  the  representation  of  negroes,  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  control  of 
commerce. 

We  showed  that: 

1.  (a)  Small  states  were  afraid  of  being 
overpowered  by  large  ones.  This  difficulty  was 
overcome  by  giving  them  equal  representation 
in  the  Senate. 

(b)  In  the  Continental  Congress  only  the 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  163 

states,  not  the  people,  had  been  represented. 
The  rights  of  the  people  were  now  provided 
for  in  the  House  of  Eepresentatives,  and  to 
pacify  the  large  states,  representation  was  to 
be  according  to  population. 

2.  (a)  In  apportioning  taxation  and  deciding 
representation,  five  negroes  were  to  be  counted 
as  equal  to  three  white  people. 

3.  (a)  Commercial  questions  were  to  be  de- 
cided in  Congress  by  majority  vote  instead  of 
two-thirds  vote.  (This  was  a  concession  to  the 
North.) 

(b)  The  slave  trade  was  to  continue  without 
interference  for  twenty  years.  (This  was  a 
concession  to  the  South.) 

Under  the  fifth  heading — favorable  results, 
we  showed  that  the  Constitution  did  solve  the 
difficulties  existing  under  the  Confederation, 
because  it  provided  the  necessary  centralization 
lacking  in  the  Confederation,  thereby  giving  us 
a  real  national  government,  rather  than  a  mere 
confederation  of  states.  It  created  executive 
and  judicial  departments,  and  gave  Congress 


164       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

definite  powers,  with  proper  authority  to  exer- 
cise them. 

It  gave  a  Congress  made  up  of  two  houses, 
the  Senate,  representing  the  States,  and  the 
House  of  Eepresentatives,  the  people. 

It  gave  Congress  full  power  of  taxation, 
power  to  regulate  trade,  control  foreign  com- 
merce, and  levy  duties. 

It  gave  equal  rights  to  all  citizens  in  all  the 
states.  The  convention  of  1787  created  a  con- 
stitution which  has  stood  successfully  the  test 
of  a  century,  and  is  still  the  supreme  law  of  one 
of  the  most  civilized  nations  of  the  world. 

By  taking  the  problem  up  in  this  manner  each 
member  of  the  class  is  required  to  do  consider- 
able outside  research  work,  and  by  pooling  the 
information  thus  obtained,  the  pupils  gain  a 
much  wider  knowledge  of  the  subject  than 
would  be  possible  if  each  attempted  to  cover 
the  entire  field  for  himself. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:   HISTORY  165 

IV.    An  Example   of  a  Project  m  Modern 
History^ 

Problem :  Prove  that  the  Eenaissance  was  a 
period  of  tremendous  change  in  Europe  from 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  to  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  in  all  the  realms  of  human 
activity,  especially  in  painting,  sculpture,  archi- 
tecture, language,  literature,  science,  invention, 
discovery,  education,  and  religion. 

Time :  We  devoted  eight  days  to  this  problem. 

Texts:  1.  West's  Modern  World  (Pages  310- 
324). 

2.  Webster's  Early  European  History  (Pages 
589-642). 

Eef  erences : 

1.  Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I. 

2.  Field,  Study  of  the  Eenaissance. 

3.  Hulme,  Eenaissance  and  Eeformation. 

4.  Hudson,  Story  of  the  Eenaissance. 

5.  Burckhart,  Civilization  of  the  Eenaissance. 

6.  Encyclopedia :  Brittanica  or  International. 

•By  two  high  school  students— Miriam  Luten  and  Ade- 
laide Brown. 


166       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

7.  Further  Eeferences  see  end  of  Chapter  V 
of  Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  201-203. 

In  the  study  and  discussion  of  early  modern 
history  many  problems  arise  of  interest  to  the 
pupils.  The  period  of  the  Renaissance,  since 
it  influenced  later  history  to  such  a  great  extent, 
is  very  important. 

The  problem  on  this  period  of  history  as 
given  to  the  class  to  develop  was:  Prove  that 
the  Renaissance  was  a  period  of  tremendous 
change  in  Europe  from  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth,  in 
all  realms  of  human  activity. 

In  discussing  the  problem  the  class  agreed 
that  the  important  changes  of  the  period  ap- 
peared in  painting,  sculpture,  architecture, 
language,  literature,  science,  invention,  dis- 
covery, education,  and  religion. 

We  were  given  time  to  consider  the  possibili- 
ties of  each  subject  and  then  choose  the  one 
that  was  best  suited  to  our  own  interests.  Be- 
sides the  general  references  given  on  the  pre- 
ceding page  each  student  used  special  references' 
dealing  with  his  particular  problem. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  167 

The  class  discussion  of  the  problem  extended 
over  eight  lessons.  The  problem  of  the  first 
lesson  was:  Prove  that  there  was  a  revival  of 
painting  during  the  Renaissance.  In  doing  this 
we  contrasted  the  painting  of  the  Middle  Ages 
with  that  of  the  Eenaissance.  Throughout  the 
lesson,  we  followed  this  outline  of  the  problem : 
l__01d  Conditions,  2— Defects  of  Old  Condi- 
tions, 3 — Problem  to  be  solved,  4 — Events,  or 
what  happened,  5 — ^Favorable  or  Unfavorable 
Results. 

In  the  recitation,  Laura  first  told  about  the 
Art  of  the  Middle  Ages.  She  stated  that  nearly 
all  the  paintings  were  frescoes  done  directly 
on  the  plaster  walls,  and  that  primarily,  their 
purpose  was  not  beauty,  but  rather  to  help  save 
the  soul  of  the  beholder.®  Florence  developed 
the  second  point,  the  defects.  She  explained 
that  these  early  paintings  were  imitations  of 
Byzantine  mosaics  and  enamels ;  that  they  were 
all  highly  conventionalized  and  with  strict  ad- 
herence to  tradition;  that  they  showed  little 
knowledge  of  anatomy,  proportion,  perspective, 

'E.  M.  Hulme,  Renaissance  and  Reformation,  p.  116. 


169       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

or  distance.  Harold  volunteered  information 
on  their  symbolic  character,  how  a  clasped 
hand,  two  raised  fingers,  the  color  of  the  gar- 
ments, a  bunch  of  keys,  a  sword,  all  had  a 
specific  part  in  making  the  meaning  of  the  pic- 
ture evident  at  a  glance.  John  dealt  with  the 
third  part,  the  problem  to  be  solved.  He 
showed  the  class  how  the  old  narrow  concep- 
tion of  painting  was  at  variance  with  the  new 
humanistic  movement  which  was  springing  up. 
He  pointed  out  how  the  new  interest  in  classic 
literature,  architecture,  and  sculpture,  could 
not  help  but  extend  to  painters  and  make  them 
try  to  raise  their  art  with  the  other  arts. 
Nearly  all  the  pupils  contributed  facts  about 
the  fourth  point,  the  events,  or  rather  work  ac- 
complished, Louise  named  Giotto  as  the  first 
artist  to  cast  aside  the  old  binding  traditions 
and  to  infuse  life  into  his  paintings  and  to  give 
them  an  air  of  reality.  She  told  how  he  utilized 
arrangement,  scenery,  buildings  and  gesture  to 
bring  this  about.  Other  students  made  con- 
tributions pertaining  to  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  works  of  one  or  more  of  the  famous 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  169 

painters:  Leonardo  Da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo, 
Eaphael,  Titian,  Del  Sarto,  Holbein,  Eubens, 
iVan  Dyck,  and  Eembrandt,  and  suggested  how 
they  contributed  to  the  Eenaissance.  At  the 
close  of  the  period,  Adelaide  spoke  on  the  fifth 
division,  the  results,  and  summed  up  the  value 
of  these  painters  to  the  world  as  founders  of 
our  principles  and  examples  of  the  highest  art. 

In  a  similar  way  we  handled  the  problems  of 
all  of  the  lessons. 

The  problem  of  the  second  lesson  was:  Prove 
that  there  was  a  revival  of  sculpture  during  thej- 
Eenaissance.  In  developing  the  problem  we 
compared  the  sculpture  of  the  Eenaissance  with 
that  of  the  Middle  Ages.  We  showed  that  the 
great  sculptors  of  the  later  period,  Pisano, 
Ghiberti,  Brunelleschi,  Donatello,  Delia  Eobbia, 
Sansovina  and  Michael  Angelo  contributed 
much  to  the  Eenaissance. 

In  the  third  lesson  we  proved  that  there  was 
a  revival  of  architecture  during  the  Eenaissance 
period.  We  proved  by  referring  to  the  works 
of  Pisano,  Brunelleschi,  Alberti,  Bramante, 
Michael  Angelo,  and  Palladio  that  the  architeo- 


170        EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

ture  was  distinctly  different  from  the  Gothic 
style  of  the  previous  period. 

To  prove  that  there  was  a  revival  of  language 
and  literature  during  the  Eenaissance  was  the 
problem  of  the  fourth  lesson.  The  remarkable 
change  from  the  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages 
we  showed  began  with  Dante  (1265-1321)  and 
included  the  work  of  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Lang- 
land,  Froissart,  Chaucer,  Chrysoloras,  Valla, 
Eeuchlin,  Colet,  Erasmus,  Machiavelli,  Von 
Hutten,  Montaigne,  Cervantes,  Francis  Bacon 
and  Shakespeare.  In  literature  we  showed  the 
reversion  from  the  study  of  the  dull  writings 
of  the  schoolmen  to  the  brilliant  productions 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors.  The  class 
devoted  much  time  to  the  consideration  of  the 
development  of  the  modern  languages  and 
literature. 

We  proved  in  the  fifth  lesson  that  there  was 
a  revival  of  science  and  invention  during  the 
Renaissance.  That  much  progress  was  made 
in  science  was  shown  by  discussing  the  work 
of  such  men  as  Roger  Bacon,  Gutenberg, 
Lorentius  Valla,  Behaim,  Copernicus,  Servetus, 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  171 

Francis  Bacon,  Galileo,  Kepler,  Harvey,  and 
Newton.  We  also  showed  how  valuable  the 
contributions  of  these  men  were  to  later  history. 
The  members  of  the  class  were  especially  in- 
terested in  the  inventions :  printing,  gunpowder, 
the  compass,  and  the  telescope  and  their  effect 
on  civilization. 

The  problem  of  the  sixth  lesson  was :  Prove 
that  the  Renaissance  was  an  age  of  discovery 
and  exploration.  We  pointed  out  the  im- 
portance of  the  discoveries  and  explorations  of 
such  men  as  Marco  Polo,  Prince  Henry  the 
Navigator,  Diaz,  Da  Gama,  Columbus,  Cabot, 
Vespuccius,  Pizzaro,  Balboa,  Magellan,  Cortez, 
Cartier,  Hudson,  Raleigh,  Champlain,  De  Soto, 
Ponce  De  Leon,  telling  of  the  influence  of  the 
Renaissance  period  and  why  discoveries  were 
not  made  before  this  time. 

Prove  that  there  was  a  revival  of  education 
during  the  Renaissance,  was  the  problem  of 
the  seventh  lesson.  We  contrasted  the  educa- 
tion of  the  Middle  Ages  with  that  of  the  Renais- 
sance period.  In  doing  so,  we  emphasized 
especially  the  views  and  accomplishments  of 


172       fiTDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

Chrysoloras,  Eeuchlin,  Erasmus,  Colet,  Sturm, 
Ascham,  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Zwingli,  Calvin, 
Loyola,  Eabelais,  Mulcaster,  Montaigne,  and 
Francis  Bacon. 

Li  the  last  lesson  we  proved  that  a  revival 
of  religion  occurred  during  the  Eenaissance. 
We  discussed  men  whose  writings  and  doctrines 
contributed  to  the  Eef ormation ;  among  those 
considered  were  John  Wyclif,  John  Tauler, 
John  Huss,  Thomas  a  Kempis,  John  Goch,  John 
Wessel,  Savonarola,  Lorentius  Valla,  Erasmus, 
John  Colet,  Sir  Thomas  More,  William  Tyn- 
dale,  Martin  Luther,  Ulrich  Zwingli,  Ignatius 
Loyola,  John  Calvin,  Thomas  Cranmer  and 
John  Knox. 

Every  lesson  was  discussed  very  enthusiast- 
ically by  all  the  members  of  the  class. 

F.    The  Socialized  Recitation  from  the  Stu- 
dents' Standpoint 

We  are  beginning  to-day  a  new  era.  Free- 
dom has  become  the  motto  of  the  world;  free- 

»By  a  High  School  Student— Miss  Violet  Harrison. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  173 

dom  from  old  tyrannies,  freedom  of  thought, 
in  fact  true  freedom. 

Surely  when  new  and  efficient  methods  are 
replacing  the  old  in  so  many  things  a  change 
in  school  methods  which  would  encourage 
greater  freedom  of  thought  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil  deserves  earnest  consideration. 

The  socialized  recitation  gives  to  the  student 
freedom  of  thought  and  requires  from  him 
greater  efficiency.  It  also  stimulates  his  initia- 
tive and  originality. 

In  my  class  in  modern  history  a  critic  is  ap- 
pointed to  preside.  The  chairman  works  with 
the  teacher  to  see  that  all  errors  are  corrected 
and  all  important  facts  are  emphasized. 

In  the  assignment  the  lesson  is  divided  into 
two  or  three  parts,  and  a  leader  is  assigned  by 
the  teacher  for  each  part.  The  duty  of  the 
leader  is  to  outline  his  part  of  the  lesson,  pre- 
pare questions,  and  to  gather  outside  informa- 
tion pertaining  to  his  subject. 

When  the  class  meets  the  following  day  the 
leaders  are  called  to  question  the  class  in  their 
order.    Two  pupils  are  appointed  by  the  leader 


174       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

to  answer  every  question.  If  they  fail,  or  the 
pupils  are  not  satisfied,  volunteers  are  called 
to  correct  any  errors  or  give  additional  in- 
formation. 

As  a  student,  the  socialized  recitation  appeals 
to  me  because  the  former  dullness  and  dryness 
of  the  period  is  eliminated  and  it  becomes  a 
period  of  mental  activity.  This  change  comes 
from  the  fact  that  the  pupils  are  interested  in 
their  work  rather  than  in  the  grade  they  will 
receive. 

By  the  question  and  answer  method  little  real 
interest  in  the  subject  was  aroused  in  the  pupils. 
It  was  too  monotonous.  A  class  conducted  ac- 
cording to  our  plan  is  not  monotonous,  because 
each  day  something  new  and  interesting  is 
brought  to  the  pupils'  attention. 

Questions  are  brought  before  the  class  and 
often  problems  arise  from  them  for  the  stu- 
dents to  discuss. 

Class  discussion  converts  the  recitation 
period  into  one  of  hard  and  quick  thinking,  in 
which  the  student  does  his  best  studying  under 
the  stimulus  of  his  fellow  students  and  teacher. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  175 

The  text-book  serves  as  an  outline  of  topics  to 
be  considered. 

The  pupils,  to  prove  their  points,  must  neces- 
sarily read  outside  information,  and  this  they 
are  willing  to  do  because  they  have  the  proper 
incentive.  Questions  or  suggestions  put  the  stu- 
dent into  action.  The  teacher  is  there  to  formu- 
late problems,  not  to  supply  answers  before 
the  questions  have  been  raised  within  Ihe 
learner's  mind. 

Where  there  is  no  interest  in  a  subject ;  where 
there  is  no  question  in  the  student's  mind,  there 
can  be  no  searching  for  an  answer. 

Where  there  is  no  problem  there  is  no  occa- 
sion for  the  mind  to  think  hard.  The  problems 
we  discuss  are  not  only  those  given  by  the 
teacher,  but  those  coming  from  the  pupils  and 
therefore  interesting  to  them. 

The  student's  viewpoint  is  broadened;  the 
teacher  and  the  text-books  are  not  the  only 
authorities.  Through  class  discussions  the 
opinions  of  the  other  students  are  heard  and 
the  pupils  learn  by  experience  to  form  opin- 


176       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

ions  of  their  own,  regarding  the  problems 
brought  up. 

The  socialized  recitation  is  one  of  expression 
rather  than  repression.  The  student  is  given 
the  opportunity  to  express  himself  without  the 
restraint  usually  felt  in  classes. 

The  socialized  recitation  is  more  democratic 
than  the  old  method  as  the  students  help  in 
governing,  not  depending  on  one  person,  the 
teacher. 

As  the  class  must  work  together  to  gain  the 
desired  results,  co-operation  becomes  a  part  of 
the  training.  Instead  of  each  pupil  working 
solely  for  his  own  benefit  each  works  for  the 
benefit  of  the  whole  class. 

Because  the  students  feel  that  the  respon- 
sibility rests  on  them  rather  than  the  teacher, 
they  become  more  self-assured  and  this  en- 
courages democratic  control  and  management. 

Progress  is  made  by  considering  new  ideas. 
A  student  under  the  socialized  recitation  must 
make  progress  not  only  in  the  subject,  but  also 
along  other  lines. 

The  student's  interests  are  widened,  new; 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS;    mSTORY  177 

paths  of  knowledge  open  for  him.  He  is  started 
thinking  along  new  lines  and  awakened  to  bet- 
ter things. 

The  business  world  of  to-day  is  looking  for 
men  and  women  with  initiative  and  originality. 
The  socialized  recitation  stimulates  both  of 
these  qualities  in  the  students. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  what  the  pupils  think 
of  the  new  plan  of  recitation.  The  following 
comments  were  selected  from  J.  P.  Zitnmer's 
monograph,  Teaching  Boys  and  Girls  How  to 
Study: 

**It  makes  us  use  our  minds  during  IKe  re- 
citation.'' 

**It  makes  me  study  more.'' 

**It  teaches  me  to  think  for  myself/' 

**I  get  more  out  of  my  lesson." 

**We  learn  to  ask  questions  that  have  some 
meaning." 

** Pupils  find  out  things  for  themselves." 

**It  teaches  me  to  find  the  most  important 
things." 

**I  like  to  hear  the  things  others  have  read 
in  other  books," 


178       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

'*It  helps  me  to  be  accurate.'* 

**It  makes  me  use  all  the  time  I  have." 

**I  learn  to  use  good  English." 

**I  am  glad  to  hear  things  that  others  get 
out  of  a  lesson  that  I  did  not  get." 

**This  method  teaches  me  to  think,  to  use  my 
brain,  to  answer  and  to  ask  questions." 

**This  method  of  teaching  is  very  good,  as 
it  makes  me  think  or  learn  how  to  study  and 
also  to  talk  to  the  class.  It  will  not  be  so  hard 
to  learn  next  year's  work." 

**I  like  this  system  of  teaching  because  the 
lessons  are  more  interesting  and  I  learn  many 
more  things  from  the  questions  the  other  pupils 
ask,  and  every  child  gets  an  equal  chance." 

**This  method  of  teaching  has  taught  me  to 
think  and  reason  for  myself.  The  children's 
questions  can  get  at  certain  parts  of  the  studies 
that  learned  people  do  not  always  think  of." 

"It  makes  us  think  and  reason.  I  cannot 
criticise  our  new  way  and  I  hope  they  keep  it. 
The  old  way  we  had  kept  the  bright  children 
busy,  while  the  others  sat  there  and  naturally 
had  low  reports.    I  think  some  children  do  not 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  179 

understand  what  they  read,  but  get  the  mean- 
ing by  our  new  method/' 

**If  you  do  not  know  what  anything  means 
you  have  to  ask  questions  in  order  to  learn  the 
answer.  If  a  pupil  is  asked  a  question,  he  must 
think  very  hard  to  answer  it.  If  you  do  not 
know  what  the  word  means  you  have  to  look 
it  up  in  the  dictionary  or  ask  the  class.  I  think 
it  helps  me  a  great  deal." 

**The  following  statement  was  written  by  a 
boy  who  had  been  in  the  local  schools  only  one 
week.'" 

**I  like  this  method  of  recitation  because  it 
gives  every  pupil  a  chance  to  say  something. 
It  helps  me  when  I  am  reciting  because  I  would 
much  rather  have  the  pupils  correct  me  than 
the  teacher,  and  it  shows  me  my  mistakes.  I 
have  been  in  nine  different  schools  besides  this 
one  and  had  many  different  methods,  but  this 
is  the  best.  I  have  had  poorer  deportment  than 
here  as  a  result  of  the  teachers'  asking  and 
correcting  everything." 

•J.  p.  Zimmers,  Teaching  Boys  and  Girls  How  to  Study, 
pp.  51-52. 


180       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

VI.  What  Are  the  Advantages  of  the  Socialized 
Recitation? 

To  think,  to  become  responsible,  to  be  inter- 
ested, to  be  aroused,  to  want  to  put  forth  effort, 
to  do  something  for  others,  to  feel  their  part 
in  the  recitation — this  social  consciousness  is 
stimulated  by  the  new  plan  of  recitation.®  Many 
students  tell  me  that  *4t  does  away  with  the 
old  monotony."  **It  makes  the  schoolroom  real, 
life-like  and  natural.  The  students  become 
members  of  a  working  community  which  adopt 
the  principles  of  character  and  good  citizenship 
as  the  standard  of  living  and  working.*'" 

It  is  simply  a  way  of  giving  the  self-reliance 
and  initiative  within  a  group  the  maximum 
opportunity  to  develop.  This  form  of  recita- 
tion arouses  more  interest,  more  sense  of  co- 
operation between  the  students  and  between  the 
teacher  and  the  students  and  a  wider  freedom 
of  self-expression  than  does  the  ordinary  reci- 
tation.   Eesponsibility  and  leadership  become 

•WiUiam  WWtney,  The  Socialized  Recitation. 
"Ibid. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:   HISTORY  181 

pleasurable  realities  in  boys  and  girls  who  feel 
themselves  expanding  under  its  burdens.  The 
spirit  of  the  group  is  more  friendly  and  earnest. 
But  the  greatest  of  all  the  advantages  is  the 
training  given  the  student  in  how  to  study,  how 
to  think,  and  how  to  express  thought.^^  It  gives 
a  chance  for  analysis,  for  comparison,  for 
logical  reasoning,  for  reflective  judgment,  and 
for  oral  expression." 

Frank  Herbert  Palmer  says  that  the  plan  and 
its  details  are  so  full  of  interest,  so  dynamic, 
so  fruitful  of  good  to  the  average  pupil,  so 
fascinating  as  a  method  of  teaching  that  every 
instructor  will  find  it  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration. This  method  of  recitation  makes  the 
pupil  think  for  himself.  Instead  of  being  re- 
quired to  listen  most  of  the  time  to  the  teacher 
and  to  remember  what  he  has  expressed,  the 
pupil  himself  becomes  an  investigator,  and  hav- 
ing found  out  for  himself,  expresses  his 
thoughts  in  the  recitation.    He  is  cross-ques- 

"A.  S.  Beatman,  The  Social  Recitation.     Published  by 
"The  Independent." 
"Report  to  the  Seattle  High  School  History  Teachers. 


182       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

tioned  by  the  class  and  made  to  defend  his  posi- 
tion. The  doing  of  these  things  makes  him 
careful  and  accurate.  It  cultivates  habits  of 
expression.  It  makes  him  confident.  It  de- 
velops leadership.  Graduates  of  elementary 
schools  where  this  method  is  followed  usually 
get  all  the  best  honors  and  class  leadership 
offices  in  the  high  schools  which  they  afterward 
enter."  The  plan  solves  the  question  of  order 
and  discipline.  Disorder  is  usually  the  result 
of  idleness  and  inattention.  These  do  not  exist 
where  the  socialized  recitation  plan  is  followed. 
After  reviewing  the  answers  to  a  questionnaire 
pertaining  to  methods  employed  by  teachers  of 
history,  civics,  and  economics  in  Seattle  High 
Schools,  Superintendent  Frank  B.  Cooper 
stated  that  the  teachers  agree  that  "the  method 
is  necessary  to  arouse  interest  and  to  encourage 
intelligent  thinking,  an  essential  for  citizenship 
in  a  democracy;  to  develop  initiative  and  fair- 
mindedness;  to  teach  the  American  way  of 
arriving  at  a  conclusion;  to  get  a  clear  under- 

"  Editor  Frank  H.  Palmer  in  "Education"  for  January, 
1919. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  183 

standing  of  problems;  to  cultivate  a  sense  of 
truth  and  a  realization  of  the  need  of  it;  to 
establish  the  habit  of  consulting  authorities  and 
of  speaking  the  truth;  to  cultivate  a  sense  of 
knowing  different  views  in  arriving  at  conclu- 
sions based  on  a  broad  knowledge;  because 
pupils  learn  not  to  swallow  blindly  one  author- 
ity; because  the  test  of  authority  is  investiga- 
tion; because  the  teacher  is  not  in  a  class  to 
impose  personal  opinions;  because  wrong  per- 
sonal views  are  corrected ;  because  hearsay  evi- 
dence is  discredited.'' 

Superintendent  Cooper  said  further:  **It 
tends  to  induce  the  thinking  habit,  to  encourage 
the  weighing  of  opinions,  and  a  comparison  of 
facts  before  decision.  It  aims  to  blaze  the  way 
fo  just  conclusions,  rather  than  to  arrive  at 
conclusions,  for  there  are  numerous  problems 
studied  as  to  which  satisfactory  conclusions 
have  not  yet  been  reached.  My  only  comment 
upon  these  returns  is  that  this  city  is  highly 
fortunate  in  being  served  by  a  body  of  teachers 
which  shows  the  intelligence,  wisdom  and  fine 
spirit  of  service  and  patriotism  that  are  dis- 


184       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

closed  in  the  answers  to  these  questions.**   The 
report  was  adopted. 

Dr.  William  T.  Whitney  in  his  mongraph  en- 
titled the  Socialized  Recitation,"  maintains  that 
**the  recitation  period  should  be  devoted  to 
training  the  student,  rather  than  instructing 
the  student.  The  student  will  get  the  instruc- 
tion of  necessity,  if  the  material  or  content  of 
instruction  is  placed  at  his  disposal  in  such  a 
way  that  he  may,  as  a  worker,  use  it  in  practic- 
ing good  speech,  good  manners,  thinking,  doing, 
co-operating  and  building  up  habits  that  be- 
come right  moral  action.'' 

*' Morality  does  not  consist  of  abstract 
thoughts.  Good  citizenship  does  not  consist  of 
talk  about  ideals.  The  highest  morality  and 
best  citizenship  is  in  doing  an  honest  piece  of 
work  with  a  sincere  motive  and  purpose. 

**For  the  mechanic,  for  the  student,  morality 
and  citizenship  mean  doing  effectively  and  effi- 
ciently, with  right  motives  the  thing  that  should 
be   done.     This   may  be   termed   a  working 

"  W.  T.  Whitney,  The  SodaUzed  Recitation,  A.  S.  Bames 
Co.,  N.  Y. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  185 

morality,  but  it  is  the  type  of  moral  training 
most  needed  to-day. 

'*No  opportunity  is  provided  in  the  ordinary 
recitation  for  the  student  to  receive  that  train- 
ing in  thought,  in  courtesy,  in  manners  and 
practical  morals,  in  language  and  power  of 
adaptability,  which  constitutes  the  valuable 
part  of  the  recitation.  The  Socialized  Recita- 
tion admits  of  all  these  elements  which  are  im- 
perative if  the  student  is  to  be  educated. 

**The  ordinary  recitation  means  an  artificial 
and  unnatural  way  of  mentally  digesting  in- 
formation and  subject-matter.  The  question 
and  answer  method  as  well  as  the  so-called  de- 
velopment method  seldom  touches  the  student's 
real  interest.  It  is  evident  also  that  in  the 
ordinary  recitation  no  plan  or  preparation  is 
made  for  the  student  to  take  a  conversatidnal 
interest  in  the  work.  He  is  confined  and  re- 
stricted to  the  few  thoughts  that  the  teacher 
may  have  in  mind  which  may  or  may  not  be 
the  student's  viewpoint  and*  which  may  in  no 
sense  be  educational  so  far  as  the  student  is 
concerned.'' 


186       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

TJnder  the  old  plan  of  recitation  the  students 
relied  too  much  upon  the  teacher.  They  de- 
pended on  him.  Was  there  anything  to  be 
done?  Was  there  any  responsibility  to  be  as- 
sumed! Was  there  any  disorder  to  be  sup- 
pressed? Was  there  any  unfavorable  condi- 
tions to  be  attended  to?  The  teacher  was  the 
one  to  look  after  all  such  matters.  The  pupils 
felt  no  responsibility  resting  upon  them.  The 
only  part  the  pupils  played  was  to  repeat  the 
facts  learned,  to  rehearse  the  lesson. 

**The  Socialized  Recitation  gives  a  better 
opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  study  and  know 
the  individual  pupil.  The  recitation  period  be- 
comes an  active  period  of  pupil  responsibility, 
and  no  longer  a  listening  period.  The  student 
becomes  a  doer  and  not  a  passive  listener.  The 
class  is  the  active  part  of  the  recitation,  not 
the  teacher.  If  there  are  cases  of  discipline, 
the  pride  and  honor  of  the  class  will  help  settle 
these.  If  there  are  members  of  the  class  whose 
conduct,  speech,  actions  and  manners,  are  detri- 
mental to  good  citizenship,  the  honor  and  re- 
spect of  the  class  will  do  much  to  remedy  that. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  187 

'"The  Socialized  Eecitation  avoids  the  artifi- 
cial conditions  of  the  classroom  and  recitation. 
The  subject-matter  is  a  means  for  the  expres- 
sion of  the  student's  own  ideas  and  to  develop 
his  power.  The  subject-matter  of  a  given  les- 
son is  so  planned  by  the  teacher  that  it  becomes 
material  to  be  used  by  the  student  in  creating 
experiences,  and  in  giving  and  receiving  im- 
pressions. Thus  to  a  very  large  degree  drill 
is  eliminated,  but  the  facts  are  nevertheless  fixed, 
because  of  the  concrete  situation  in  which  the 
student  uses  them." 

After  commenting  on  an  article  pertaining  to 
the  Socialized  Eecitation  by  Lotta  A.  Clark  en- 
titled ** A  Good  Way  to  Teach  History''  (School 
Eeview,  April,  1909)  Dr.  Colvin  A.  Scott  makes 
this  cogent  statement:  **Such  an  organization 
of  work  consists  in  something  much  more  than 
a  mere  change  of  method.  Methods  are  only 
means  for  carrying  out  a  given  plan  or  aim. 
What  is  proposed  here  is  to  allow  the  public, 
and  particularly  that  part  of  it  the  school  is 
directly  in  contact  with,  i.e.,  the  pupils,  to  help 
to  shape  the  content  of  the  course  of  study  in 


188       EDUCATION  DURINa  ADOLESCENCE 

harmony  with  their  most  lively  and  productive 
interests.  This  will  not  exclude  the  full  im- 
pingement of  the  best  of  the  teacher's  contribu- 
tion. He  will  probably  find  a  greater  oppor- 
tunity than  ever  before  to  impress  his  best 
ideas  upon  his  pupils.  They  become  more  will- 
ing to  hear  and  to  co-operate  with  him  when  he 
has  already  shown  his  willingness  to  co-operate 
with  them.''" 
Questions  on  Social  Phases  of  the  Recitation, 

1.  Do  the  students  do  most  of  the  talking! 

2.  Do  the  students  ask  questions  of  each 
other? 

3.  Are  the  students  arranged  during  the  reci- 
tation period  so  as  to  be  able  to  see  each  other! 

4.  Is  it  a  habit  of  the  student  to  speak  to 
all  the  members  of  the  group,  rather  than  to 
the  teacher! 

5.  Are  the  questions  which  the  teacher  and 
the  students  ask,  such  as  to  stimulate  discussion 
among  the  pupils! 

6.  Do  the  students  feel  that  it  is  worth  while 

»C.  H.  Johnson,  Modem  High  School,  pp.  240-244. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  189 

to  help  each  other  and  do  they  commonly  feel 
responsible  for  the  progress  of  the  class! 

?•  Do  the  students  answer  questions  which 
are  put  by  the  teacher  or  by  the  other  students 
after  careful  thought,  and  are  they  still  willing 
to  defend  their  positions  against  the  sugges- 
tions of  doubt  which  may  be  expressed  by  the 
other  pupils? 


References'^^ 
Some  of  G.  8.  EalVs  Writings 

1.  Adolescence:  Its  Psychology  and  Its  Re- 
lations to  Physiology,  Anthropology,  Sociology, 
Sex,  Crime,  Eeligion  and  Education.  Two 
monumental  and  epoch-making  volumes.  D. 
Appleton  &  Company,  1904. 

2.  Educational  Problems.    In  this  work,  con- 

'•Note:  A  complete  biblography  of  Dr.  HaU*s  Writings 
may  be  found  in  L.  N.  Wilson's  life  of  G.  Stanley  Hall, 
G.  E.  Stechert  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1914  (pp.  119-144).  G.  E. 
Partridge's  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education  (pp.  383-394), 
contains  a  bibUography  of  G.  S.  HaU's  Writings  to  1912. 


190       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

sisting  of  two  ponderous  and  comprehensive 
volumes,  Dr.  Hall  discusses  educational  prob- 
lems from  the  point  of  view  of  genetic  psy- 
chology and  the  needs  of  society.  D.  Appleton, 
1911. 

3.  Youth:  Its  Education,  Regimen  and 
Hygiene.  Selections  from  **  Adolescence.'' 
** Youth,''  contains  besides  other  valuable  dis- 
cussions, chapters  on  sports,  games,  and  plays, 
the  education  of  girls,  and  biographies  of 
adolescents.    D.  Appleton,  1904. 

4.  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education.  This 
book  of  326  pages  deals  with  the  contents  of 
children's  minds,  day  dreams,  curiosity,  dolls, 
collecting,  ownership,  fetishism,  boy  life  forty 
years  ago,  and  other  topics.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Bos- 
ton, 1907. 

5.  The  Ideal  School  as  Based  on  Child  Study. 
The  Forum,  Sept.,  1901,  Vol.  XXXII,  pp.  24-39. 
Also  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education 
Association,  1901,  pp.  475-488.  See  Dr.  Hall's 
Introduction  to  P.  W.  Search's  book,  **  An  Ideal 
School."    D.  Appleton,  1901. 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS:    HISTORY  191 

6.  How  Far  is  the  Present  High  School  and 
Early  College  Training  Adapted  to  the  Nature 
and  Needs  of  Adolescents!  Ofl&cial  Eeport  of 
the  16th  Annual  Meeting  of  the  N.  E.  Ass'n  of 
Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  pp.  72-104. 
Also  in  School  Review,  Dec,  1901. 

7.  The  High  School  as  the  People's  College. 
Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superinten- 
dence, National  Education  Association,  Chicago, 
Feb.  27,  1902.  Cf.  The  High  School  as  the 
People's  College  Versus  the  Fitting  School'. 
Ped.  Sem.,  March,  1902,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  63-73. 

8.  Some  Criticisms  of  High  School  Physics 
and  Manual  Training  and  Mechanic  Arts  High 
Schools  with  Suggested  Correlations.  Ped. 
Sem.,  June,  1902,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  193-204.  See  also 
Adolescents  and  High  School  English,  Latin 
and  Algebra.  Ped.  Sem.,  March,  1902,  Vol.  IX, 
pp.  92-105. 

9.  The  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education. 
This  is  the  only  summary  of  G.  Stanley  Hall's 
pedagogic  doctrine.  In  this  work  Dr.  Partridge 
attempted  to  epitomize  President  Hall's  books 


192       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

and  about  300  of  his  magazine  articles.  He  has 
done  an  enviable  piece  of  work.  This  book  is 
of  inestimable  value  to  every  teacher.  Sturgis 
&  Walton  Company,  1912.    400  pages. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF  BOOKS   AND  ARTICLES  BY 
OTHER  AUTHORITIES 

1.  Andrews,  F.  F.    The  New  Citizenship.    Proceedings, 

National  Education  Association,  1915,  pp.  702-705. 

2.  Anderson,  R.  E.    A  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Read- 
ying Tastes  of  High  School  Pupils.    Ped.  Sem.,  Dec, 

1912,  Vol,  XIX,  pp.  438-460. 

3.  Angell,  J.  R.    New  Requirements  for  Entrance  and 

Graduation  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  School 
Review,  Sept.,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  No.  7,  pp.  489-497. 

4.  Avert,  L.  B.     The  Future  High  School.     Proc.  N. 

E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  748-753. 

5.  Baglet,  W.  C.    The  Professional  Training  of  High 

School  Teachers.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1912,  pp.  686-691. 

6.  Bagley,  W.  C.    The  Determination  of  Minimum  Es- 

sentials in  Elementary  Geography  and  History. 
Yearbook,  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion.   Chicago,  1915,  pp.  131-146. 

7.  Baldwin,  J.  M.    Mental  Development  in  the  Child 

and  the  Race.    Macmillan  Co.,  1910. 

8.  Balliet,  T.   M.     Discussion   of  the  Report  of  the 

Committee   on   Economy   of   Time   in   Elementary 
Education.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  410-416. 
103 


194       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

9.  Banks,  L.  A.    Youth  of  Famous  Americans.    Metho- 
dist Book  Company,  150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 

10.  Baenes,  M.  S.    Studies  in  Historical  Method.    D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co.,  1904. 

11.  Bate,  W.  G.    An  Experiment  in  Teaching  a  Course 

in  Elementary  Sociology.  School  Review,  May, 
1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  331-340.  (An  outline  of  the 
course  is  given.) 

12.  Betts,  G.  H.    The  Recitation.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

1910,  New  York. 

13.  Blackmar,   F.     Elements   of   Sociology,  Macmillan 

Co.,  1906. 

14.  Blairsdell,    T.    C.     Should    Colleges   Admit   High 

School  Graduates  without  Regard  to  Subjects 
Studied  in  the  High  School?  School  and  Society, 
March  11,  1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  63,  pp.  366-370.  (In 
this  article  the  author  maintains  that  "ability  to  do 
college  work  can  be  attained  during  four  years  of 
study  in  high  school  without  regard  to  the  subjects 
pursued.") 

15.  Bloomfield,  M.    Youth,  School  and  Vocation.  Hough- 

ton Mifflin  Co.,  New  York,  1915. 

16.  Bolton,  F.   E.     Principles   of   Education.     Charles 

Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1910.  790  pages.  The 
facts  in  this  book  have  been  admirably  well  selected, 
carefully  organized,  and  forcibly  stated  by  Dr.  Bol- 
ton, who  discusses  pedagogy  from  the  biological  and 
psychological  points  of  view. 

17.  Bolton,  F.  E.    Facts  and  Fictions  Concerning  Educa- 

tional Values.  School  Review,  Feb.,  1904,  Vol.  XII, 
p.  170-189. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  195 

18.  Bolton,  F.  E.     What  is  the  True  Function  of  the 

Free  Public  High  School.  Published  by  the  North- 
western University,  1913.  Proceedings  of  National 
Conference  of  Secondary  Education. 

19.  BosTWicK,  A.  E.    The  Twenty-seventh  Annual  Con- 

ference of  Academies  and  High  Schools  in  Relation 
with  the  University  of  Chicago.  School  Review, 
June,  1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  394-405. 

20.  Bowers,  F.   T.     What  Constitutes  Preparation  for 

College;  a  Layman's  View.  Education,  Sept.,  1911, 
VoL  XXXII,  pp.  16-19. 

21.  Bourne,  H.  E.    The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics 

in  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  School.  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  1903. 

22.  Brigqs,  T.  H.    Secondary  Education.    Report  of  the 

Commissioner  of  Education,  1915,  pp.  113-130. 

23.  Brooks,  S.  D.    School  Document,  No.  10, 1910,  Boston 

Public  Schools. 

24.  Brooks,  S.  D.    School  Document,  No.  11, 1911,  Boston 

Public  Schools. 

25.  Brown,  E.  E.     The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools. 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1910.  (A  comprehensive 
treatment  of  the  history  of  secondary  education.) 

26.  Brown,  J.  F.     The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Sec- 

ondary Schools.    Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1911. 

27.  Brown,  J.  F.    The  American  High  School.  Macmillan 

Co.,  1909,  N.  Y.,  462  pages.  (An  excellent  text- 
book to  use  in  teaching  secondary  education.) 


196       EDUCATION  DUUlNG  ADOLESCENCE 

28.  Brown,  J.  S.     Future  Outlook  and  Possibilities  of 

Secondary  Education.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp. 
616-621. 

29.  Brown,  S.  W.     Some  Experiments  in  Elementary 

School  Organization.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1913,  pp. 
458-463. 

30.  Bryce,  James.    The  Hindrances  to  Good  Government. 

Yale  University  Press. 

31.  BuiTKER,  F.  F.    Reorganization  of  the  Public  School 

System,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Bulletin,  No.  8,  1916,  186  pages. 

32.  Bunker,  F.  F.   The  Reorganization  of  the  Schools  of 

Berkeley.  A  Plan.  Report  to  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion of  Berkeley,  California,  Nov.  30, 1909. 

33.  Bunker,  F.  F.    The  Better  Articulation  of  the  Parts 

of  the  Public  School  System.  Educational  Review, 
March,  1914,  Vol.  XLVII,  pp.  249-269. 

34.  Bunker,  F.  F.     The  Plan  to  Secure  a  Functional 

Articulation  of  the  Parts  of  the  Public  School  Sys- 
tem in  Effect  at  Berkeley.  (Chapter  of  a  book  in 
preparation.) 

35.  BuBNHAM,  W.  H.    The  Study  of  Adolescence.    Fed. 

Sem.,  1891,  June,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  pp.  174-196. 

36.  BuRNHAM,  W.  H.    Child  Study  as  the  Basis  of  Peda- 

gogy.   Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1893,  pp.  718-720. 

*^  37.  BuRNHAM,  W.  H.    Education  from  the  Genetic  Point 
of  View.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1005,  pp.  727-734. 

38.  BuRNHAM,  W.  H.    The  Group  as  a  Stimulus  to  Men- 
tal Activity.    Science  N.  S.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  761-766, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  197 

May  20,  1910.  See  quotation  in  Irving  King's 
Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  p.  235.  In  another 
work,  Social  Aspects  of  Education  (Macmillan  Co., 
1912),  Dr.  King  quotes  several  pages  of  Professor 
Bumham's  article  (pp.  358-363). 

^  39.  BuRNHAM,  W.  H.  Hygiene  of  Adolescence.  A 
Cyclopedia  of  Education  edited  by  Paul  Monroe 
with  the  assistance  of  Departmental  editors.  Vol.  I, 
pp.  44-46,  New  York,  1911.  (Dr.  Bumham  is  De- 
partmental Editor  of  Hygiene.) 

l^^^^,  BuRNHAM,  W.  H.     Suggestions  from  the  Psychology 

r ef    Adolescence.      Report    of    the    New    England 

Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools. 
School  Review,  Dec,  1897,  Vol.  V,  pp.  652-666. 
(An  explicit  and  forcible  presentation  of  the  spirit 
of  the  new  education.) 

41.  BuENHAM,  S.  History  in  the  Schools:  'A  study  of 
100  replies  of  students  as  to  how  they  were  taught 
history.  Educational  Review,  May,  1904,  Vol. 
XXVII,  pp.  521-528. 

42."  Burr,  G.  L.  What  History  Shall  We' Teach  t  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  Nov.,  1914,  pp.  283-287. 

43.  Burr,  G.  L.    Definition  of  the  Field  of  Secondary 

History.  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  June,  1916, 
Vol.  VII,  pp.  201-202.  (Papers  by  H.  D.  Foster, 
H.  E.  Bourne,  M.  McGill,  E.  M.  Violette,  J.  Sullivan, 
C.  Harford,  J.  E.  Berringer,  J.  R.  Sutton,  appear 
in  the  same  issue.) 

44.  Burr,  H.  M.  Studies  in  Adolescent  Boyhood.  Seminar 

Publishing  Co.,  Springfield,  Mass.,  1910. 


198       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

45.  Butler,  N.  M.  The  Meaning  of  Education  with  Other 

Essays  and  Addresses.  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1905. 
230  pages. 

46.  Caldwell,  0.  W.    The  Influence  of  Prolonged  and 

Carefully  Directed  Work.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1912, 
pp.  691-700. 

47.  Capen,  S.  p.    Higher  Education.    (See  Entrance  Re- 

quirements) Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, Department  of  the  Interior,  1915,  pp.  131-167. 

48.  Chambers,  W.  G.    Why  Children  Play.    Proc.  N.  E. 

A.,  1909,  pp.  720-726. 

49.  Chambers,  W.  G.     The  Evolution  of  Ideals.     Ped. 

Sem.,  March,  1903,  Vol.  X,  pp.  101-143. 

60.  Chamberlain,  A.  F.  The  Teaching  of  English.  Ped. 
Sem.,  June,  1902,  Vol.  IX,  No.  2,  pp.  161-170. 

5L  Chapman,  I.  T.  Obstacles  to  be  Encountered  in  the 
Estabhshment  of  the  Junior  High  School.  Journal 
of  Education  (A.  E.  Winship,  editor).  May  18, 1916, 
Vol.  LXXXIII,  No.  20,  pp.  538-541. 

52.  Claparede.     Experimental    Pedagogy.       Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 

53.  Clark,   L.    A.     A   Good   Way  to   Teach   History. 

School  Review,  April,  1909,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  255-266. 
(The  author  tells  how  she  "socialized"  the  recita- 
tions in  history  in  one  of  the  Boston  high  schools.) 

54.  Claxton,   p.   p.     R^jport   of  the   Commissioner   of 

Education,  Department  of  Interior,  1915. 

55.  Claxton,  P.  P.    The  Organization  of  High  Schools 

into  Junior  and  Senior  Sections.  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
1915,  pp.  747-748.  (Commissioner  Claxton  strongly 
commends  the  "Six-Three-Three  Plan.") 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  199 

56.  Cole,  T.  R.    Learning  to  Be  a  Schoolmaster.    C.  C. 

Bras,  Publisher,  Seattle,  Wash. 

57.  Cole,   T.   R.      Segregation   at   the   Broadway   High 

School,  Seattle.  School  Review,  Oct.,  1915,  Vol. 
XXV,  pp.  550-554. 

58.  COLVIN,   S.   S.     Learning  Process.     Macmillan   Co., 

1911,  N.  Y. 

59.  Committee   op   Seven.     The   Study   of   History  in 

Schools.  Report  to  the  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion.    Macmillan  Company,  1900,  N.  Y. 

60.  CoNEADi,    E.     Latin    in    High    School.     Ped.    Sem., 

March,  1905,  Vol.  XII,  No.  12,  pp.  1-27. 

6L  COOKSON,  C.  W.  The  Ethical  as  the  Essential  in 
Training  for  Efficient  Citizenship  in  a  Democracy. 
High  School  Quarterly,  April,  1916,  Vol.  IV,  No.  3, 
pp.  209-216. 

62.  COOLEY,  E.  G.     The  Part-time  School.     School  and 

Society,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  76,  pp.  843-847. 

63.  Cooper,  F.  B.     Report  on  Methods  of  Instruction 

employed  by  teachers  of  History,  Civics  and 
Economics  in  Seattle  High  Schools. 

64.  Crabtree,  J.  W.    Personality  in  Supervision.    Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  516-519. 

65.  Crabtree,  J.  W.    Harmonizing  Vocational  and  Cul- 

tural Education.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1914,  pp.  384-385. 

66.  CuBBERLEY,  E.  P.     Changing  Conceptions  of  Educa- 

tion. Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1909.  (One  of  the 
Riverside  Educational  Monographs,  edited  by  Henry 
Suzzallo.) 


/, 


200       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

67.  CUBBERLET,  E.  P.,  and  Others,  Does  the  Present  Trend 

toward  Vocational  Education  Threaten  Liberal  Cul- 
ture? School  Review,  Sept.,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  pp. 
454-488. 

68.  CuBBERLET,  E.  P.     The  Portland  Survey.     A  Text- 

book on  City  School  Administration  Based  on  a 
Concrete  Study.  World  Book  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1915. 
(Professor  Cubberley  was  assisted  by  F.  B.  Dresslar, 
E.  C.  Elliot,  J.  H.  Francis,  F.  E.  Spaulding,  L.  M. 
Terman,  and  W.  R.  Tanner.  See  Chapter  XI, 
Needed  Reorganization  and  Expansions  of  the  School 
System,  pp.  250-279.) 

69.  Curtis,  H.  S.    Education  through  Play.    Macmillan 

Co.,  1915. 

70.  Davis,  C.  0.    Realizable  Educational  Values  in  His- 

tory. History  Teacher's  Magazine,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
167-178. 

71.  Davis,  C.   0.     High  School  Courses  of  Study.     A 

constructive  study  Applied  to  New  York  City. 
World  Book  Co.,  1914. 


72.  Davis,  C.  0.     Reorganization  of  Secondary  Educa- 

tion.    Educational  Review,  Oct.,  1911,  Vol.  XLII, 
pp.  270-300. 

73.  Davis,  C.  0.    Guide  to  Methods  and  Observation  in 

History  Studies  in  High  School  Observation.    Rand, 
McNally  &  Co.,  1914. 

74.  Davis,  C.  0.    Continuation  Work  in  the  High  SchooL 

A  chapter  in  Johnson  and  Others,  The  Modern  High 
School,  pp.  546-591.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  201 

75.  Davis,  C.  0.    Principles  and  Plans  for  Reorganizing 

Secondary  Education.  A  chapter  in  Johnson  and 
Others,  High  School  Education,  pp.  67-106.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  1912. 

76.  Davison,    C.      The    Education   of   Charles    Darwin. 

Educational  Review,  Feb.,  1912,  Vol.  XLIII,  No. 
2,  pp.  125-133. 

77.  Dealey,  W.  L.     The  Theoretical  Gary.     Ped.  Sem., 

June,  1916,  Vol.  XXIII,  No.  2,  pp.  269-282.  "This 
study  is  a  digest  of  the  Gary  literature." 

78.  Dewey,  J.     Democracy  and  Education.     Macmillan 

Co.,  1916,  New  York. 

79.  Dewey,  J.     Schools  of  To-morrow.     E.  P.  Dutton 

&  Co.,  New  York,  1915.  "Almost  every  chapter 
gives  descriptions  of  socialized  school  work." 

80.  Dewey,    J.      Interest    and    Effort    in     Education. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York. 

81.  Dewey,  J.    The  School  and  Society.    N.  Y.  McClure, 

Phillips  &  Co.,  1900. 

82.  Dewey,  J.    The  School  and  Society.     (Revised  Edi- 

tion), 1915.  The  University  of  Chicago  Press.  164 
pages. 

83.  Dole,  C.    The  American  Citizen.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 

Boston.  (This  work  "teaches  civics,  elementary 
economics,  patriotism,  and  social  responsibility.") 

84.  Dunn,  A.  W.    The  Community  and  the  Citizen.    D. 

C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  1910. 

85.  Dutton,  S.  T.     Social  Phases  of  Education  in  the 

School  and  the  Home,  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York, 
1899,  pp.  257. 


202       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

86.  DuTTON  and  Snedden.  The  Administration  of  Public 
Education  in  the  United  States.  Macmillan  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1909,  pp.  600. 

^^7.  Earhart,  L.  B.  Types  of  Teaching.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  1915,  New  York.  Ch.  IX,  Recitation 
Exercise,  Ch.  XI,  Socializing  Exercises,  Ch.  XIV, 
Training  Pupils  to  Study. 

88.  Eliot,  C.  W.    Educational  Reform  (Essays  and  Ad- 

dresses). The  Century  Co.,  New  York,  1905,  pp.  418. 

89.  Eliot,  C.  W.    Education  for  Efficiency  and  the  New 

Definition  of  the  Cultivated  Man.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co.,  Boston,  1910. 

90.  Eliot,  C.  W.  Present  Problems  of  Education.  Educa- 

tional Review,  March,  1914,  Vol.  XLVII,  pp.  237- 

248. 

91.  Eliot,  C.  W.    Needed  Changes  in  Secondary  Educa- 

tion. U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin  No.  10, 
1910,  Washington,  D.  C. 

92.  Eliot,  C.   W.     Changes  Needed  in  American  Sec- 

ondary Education.  School  and  Society,  March  18, 
1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  64,  pp.  397-408. 

93.  Elliot,    E.    C.     Instruction:    Its    Organization   and 

Control.  A  chapter  in  Johnson  and  Others,  High 
School  Education,  pp.  106-128.  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  1914,  N.  Y. 

94.  Ellwood,  C.  a.    The  Sociological  Basis  of  the  Science 

of  Education.  Education,  Nov.,  1911,  Vol.  XXXII, 
pp.  133-140. 

95.  Ellwood,  C.  A.    Sociology  and  Modem  Social  Prob- 

lems.   American  Book  Co.,  1911,  N.  Y. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  203 

96.  Fenwick,  a.  M.  a  Modem  City's  High  School  Sys- 
tem. School  Review,  Feb.,  1916,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp. 
116-129. 

^97.  Fish,  E.  V.  The  Boy  and  Girl;  The  Period  of 
Adolescence.  A.  H.  Crist  Co.,  Cooperstown,  N.  Y., 
1912. 

98.  Flexner,  a.    a  Modem  School.    General  Education 

Board,  New  York  City. 

99.  FoRBUSH,  W.  B.    The  Coming  Generation.    D.  Apple- 

ton  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1912. 
100.  Foster,  W.  T.    Reed  College.    School  Review,  Feb., 

1915,  Vol.  XXni,  pp.  98-104. 
101  Graves,  F.  P.     A  Student's  History  of  Education. 

Macmillan  Co.,   1915,  New  York. 

102.  Graves,  F.  P.    Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries: 

Their  Work  and  Its  Influence  on  Modem  Education. 
MacmiUan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1912. 

103.  Greene,  I.  K.     English  in  the  High  Schools,  High 

School  Bulletin  No.  5,   Department  of  Education, 
Olympia,  Washington. 

104.  Gregory,  B.   C.     Better  Schools.     Macmillan,  New 

York,  pp.  260,  1912. 

105.  Griffin,  J.  T.     Pedagogical  Leaflets,  Edited  by  J. 

T.  Griffin.    New  York  School  of  Method,  1800  East 
New  York  Avenue,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 

106.  GuTH,   W.   W.     The   Latin   Entrance   Requirement. 

School  and  Society,  May  13,  1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  72, 
pp.  701-705. 

107.  Hanus,  p.  H.    a  Modem  School.    Macmillan  Com- 

pany, New  York,  1904,  306  pages. 


204       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

108.  Hanus,  p.  H.     Educational  Aims  and  Educational 

Values.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1899.    pp.  211. 

109.  Hargreaves,  R.   T.     The  Possibilities   of  the  High 

School  Library.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  730-734. 

110.  Hartwell,  E.  C.  The  Teaching  of  History.  Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  1913.  (One  of  the  Riverside  Educa- 
tional Monographs,  edited  by  Dr.  Henry  Suzzallo.) 
lU.  Heck,  W.  H.  Mental  Discipline  and  Educational 
Values.  John  Lane  Co.,  New  York,  1909,  p.  147. 
(A  summary  of  the  arguments  opposed  to  the  dogma 
of  formal  discipline.) 

112.  Hegland,  M.    The  Danish  People's  High  School.    U. 

S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin  No.  45,  1915. 
Washington,  D.  C. 

113.  HiCHMAN,  W.  S.    Where  the  College  Fails.    Educa- 

tional Review,  June,  1916,  Vol.  LI,  pp.  57-70. 
(Some  of  the  statements  made  in  this  article  may 
be  applied  to  the  high  school.) 

114.  Hinsdale,  B.  A.    How  to  Study  and  Teach  History. 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1894. 

115.  Holland,  E.  0.    What  the  Schools  Can  Do  to  Meet 

the  Demands  of  Both  Industry  and  General  Science. 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1913,  pp.  707-712. 

116.  HoLLiSTER,  H.  A.     Administration  of  Education  in 

a  Democracy.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1914. 

117.  HOLLiSTER,  H.  A.     High  School  Administration,  D. 

C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  1911.  373  pages.  (An 
excellent  text-book.) 

118.  HoLLiSTER,  H.  A.     Constants  and  Variables  in  the 

High  School  Program  of  Studies'.  Education,  Oct., 
1911,  Vol.  XXXII,  pp.  69-74. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  205 

119.  HOLLISTER,  H.  A.     High  School  and  Class  Manage- 

ment. D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1915.  (Chapters  on  the 
teaching  of  English  and  History.) 

120.  Holmes,  W.  H.    Plans  of  Classification  in  the  Public 

Schools.  Ped.  Sem.,  Dec.,  1911,  Vol.  XVHI,  No. 
4,  pp.  475^22. 

121.  Holmes,  W.  H.     School  Organization  and  the  In- 

dividual Child.  (A  book  for  school  executives  and 
teachers,  being  an  exposition  of  plans  that  have 
been  evolved  to  adapt  school  organization  to  the 
needs  of  the  individual.)  Davis  Press,  Worcester, 
Mass.,  1912. 

122.  Horn,  P.  W.    The  Junior  High  School  in  Houston, 

Texas.  Elem.  School  Journal,  Oct.,  1915,  VoL  XVI, 
pp.  91-95. 

123.  HoRTON-,  D.  W.     A  Plan  of  Vocational  Guidance. 

School  Review,  April,  1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  236- 
243.  (A  list  of  books  on  vocations  is  given  in  this 
article.) 

124.  Hosic,  J.  r.    A  Summary  of  the  Report  of  the  Com- 

mittee on  English,  N.  E.  A.,  Commission  on  Re- 
organization of  High  Schools.  High  School  Quar- 
terly, April,  1916,  Vol.  IV,  No.  3,  pp.  180-186. 

125.  Hyde,  Wm.  De  Witt.    The  Teacher's  Philosophy  in 

and  out  of  School.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1910. 
(Riverside  Educational  Monographs.) 

126.  Inglis,  a.     a  Fundamental  Problem  in  the  Reor- 

ganization of  the  High  School.  School  Review,  May, 
1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  307-318. 


206       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

127.  Jackson,  L.  F,    A  Single  Aim  in  History  Teaching. 

History  Teacher^s  Magazine,  Vol.  V,  pp.  245-248. 
("History  alone  attempts  to  show  matters  in  their 
relation  to  time,  to  emphasize  the  importance  of 
sequence  in  life.") 

128.  Jenks,  p.  R.    a  Manual  of  Latin  Word  Formation 

for  Secondary  Schools.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

129.  Johnson,  C.  H.,  and  Others.    High  School  Education. 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1912. 

130.  Johnson,   C.   H.,   and   Others.     The  Modem   High 

School,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1914. 

131.  Johnson,  C.  H.    The  "Social  Science,"  Department 

of  Public  Administration  and  Supervision,  June, 
1916,  Vol.  II,  No.  6,  pp.  398-401. 

132.  Johnson,  H.    Teaching  of  History.    Macmillan  Co., 
^==^     1915,  New  York. 

133.  Johnson,   F.   W.     Waste  in   Elementary  and   Sec- 

ondary Education.  Popular  Science  Monthly,  July, 
1914,  Vol.  LXXXV,  pp.  40-55. 

134.  Johnson,  G.  R.     Qualitative  Elimination  from  High 

Schools.  School  Review,  Dec,  1910,  Vol.  XVIII, 
No.  10,  pp.  680-694. 

135.  Jordan,    D.    S.     The    Care   and    Culture   of   Men. 

Whitaker,  Ray  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  1896,  pp.  267. 

136.  Jordan,  D.  S.    The  Voice  of  the  Scholar. 

137.  Jordan,  D.  S.    A  Quarter  Century  of  Stanford  Uni- 

versity. School  and  Society,  July  1,  1916,  Vol.  IV, 
No.  79,  pp.  1-9. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  207 

138.  Jordan,  D.  S.     The  High  School  Course.     Popular 

Science  Monthly,  July,  1908,  Vol.  LXXIII,  pp.  28- 
31.  Also  in  the  Educational  Review,  Nov.,  1908, 
Vol.  XXXVI,  No.  8,  pp.  372-376. 

139.  JuDD,  C.  H.     Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects. 

Ginn  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1915. 

140.  JuDD,  C.  H.    A  Seven-year  Elementary  School.  Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1913,  pp.  225-234. 

141.  JuDD,  C.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.     School  Re- 

view, Jan.,  1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  25-33. 

142.  JuDD,  C.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.     School  Re- 

view, April,  1916,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  249-260. 

143.  JuDD,  C.  H.     Reasons  for  Modifying  Entrance  Re- 

quirements at  University  of  Chicago.  Education, 
Jan.,  1912,  Vol.  XXXII,  No.  5,  pp.  266-277. 

144.  JUDSON,   H.    P.     Waste   in    Educational    Curricula. 

School  Review,  Sept.,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  433-441. 

145.  Kelsey,  R.  W.     The  Text-Book  Method.     (An  ex- 

cellent article  upholding  the  text-book  method,  in 
The  History  Teacher^s  Magazine,  Philadelphia,  June, 
1914.) 

146.  Kemp,  E.  W.    Outline  of  Method  in  History.    Inland 

Publishing  Co.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  1897,  pp.  264- 
295.  "A  general  discussion  of  the  use  of  biography 
in  schooL     Chief  emphasis  upon  moral  value." 

147.  Keith,  J.  A.  H.    The  Place  and  Scope  of  Sociology. 

Proc  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  764-766. 

148.  Kennedy,  J.    The  Dam  is  Out  I    Educational  Review, 

March,  1912,  Vol.  XLIII,  No.  3,  pp.  274-281. 


208       EDUCATION  DITRING  ADOLESCENCE 

149.  Kerschensteiner,  G.     The  Idea  of  the  Industrial 

School.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1913. 

150.  B^ERSCHENSTEiNER,  G.     The  Schools  and  the  Nation. 

(Contains  four  illustrations  of  Continuation  Schools.) 
Macmillan  Co.,  London,  1914. 

151.  KiLPATRiCK,  V.  E.     Departmental  Teaching  in  Ele- 

mentary School.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1908, 
pp.  130. 

152.  King,  I.    The  High  School  Age,  Bobbs-Merrill  Com- 

pany, Indianapolis,  1914. 

153.  King,  I.    Education  for  Social  Efficiency.    D.  Apple- 

ton,  1913. 

154.  King,   I.     Social  Aspects   of  Education,  Macmillan 

Co.,  1913,  New  York.  See  Dr.  Bumham's  article.  The 
Group  as  a  Stimulus  to  Mental  Activity,  pp.  358- 
363. 

155.  King,  I.     Psychology  of  Child  Development,  Univ. 

of  Chicago  Press,  1907.     ( See  chapter  on  adolescence. ) 

156.  Kingsley,  C.  D.    Report  of  the  Committee  of  Nine 

on  the  Articulation  of  High  School  and  College. 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1911,  pp.  559-560. 

157.  Kingsley,  C.  D.    Problems  Confronting  the  Commis- 

sion on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1914,  pp.  483-488. 

158.  KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.    The  Individual  in  the  Making. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1911. 

159.  KiRPATRiCK,  E.  A.     Fundamentals  of  Child  Study. 

"A  Discussion  of  instincts  and  other  factors  in 
human  development  with  practical  applications." 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1903,  pp.  377. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  209 

160.  KuNO,  E.  E.  How  a  Knowledge  of  A  lolescent 
Characteristics  May  Aid  One  in  Directing  His  Con- 
duct.    Ped.  Sem.,  Sept.,  1914. 

181,  Leavitt,  F.  M.  Examples  of  Industrial  Education. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1912.  (This  book  gives  many 
different  plans  of  school  organization.) 

162.  Lee,  J.  Play  in  Education.  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York,  1915. 

163.^  Lewis,  H.   T.     The   Social   Sciences   in   Secondary 
"    -     Schools.    School  Review,  Sept.,  1915,  Vol.,  XXIII, 
pp.  455-464. 

164.  Mann,  C.  R.    Changes  in  Entrance  Requirements  at 

the  University  of  Chicago,  School  Review,  Sept., 
1911,  Vol.  XLH,  No.  2,  pp.  186-191. 

165.  Mace,  W.  H.     Method  in  History.     Ginn  &  Co., 

Boston. 

136.  Mace,  W.  H.  Method  in  History  for  Teacher  and 
Student.    Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1914. 

167.  McDouQALL,   W.     An  Introduction  to    Social   Psy- 

chology. John  W.  Luce  &  Co.,  Boston,  1909.  Pub- 
lished also  by  Methuen  &  Co.,  36  Essex  St.,  London. 
The  edition  published  by  Methuen  &  Co.,  contains 
a  few  more  chapters  than  the  edition  published  by 
J.  W.  Luce  &  Co. 

168.  McLaughlin,  A.  C.    The  Study  of  History  in  Schools. 

Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association  by 
the  Committee  of  Seven  composed  of  A.  C.  Mc- 
Laughlin, Chairman,  H.  B.  Adams,  G.  L.  Fox,  A. 
B.  Hart,  C.  H.  Haskins,  L.  M.  Salmon,  H.  M. 
Stephens.    Macmillan  Co.,  1900,  New  York. 


810       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

169.  MoIiAUGHLm,    A.    C.     The    Study    of    History   in 

Schools.  Report  to  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation by  a  Committee  of  Five.  A.  C.  McLaughlin, 
Chairman,  C.  H.  Haskins,  J.  H.  Robinson,  C.  W. 
Mann,  J.  Sullivan,  Macmillan  Co.,  1911,  New  York. 

170.  McManis,   J.   T.     Vocational   Training   in   Chicago 

Schools.  School  Review,  March,  1915,  Vol.  XXIII, 
pp.  145-158. 

171.  McMuRBAT,  C.  A.    Special  Method  in  History.  Mao- 

nrillan  Co.,  New  York,  1908. 

172.  MiLLiMAN,  L.  D.    Manual  of  English  Prose  Composi- 

tion. Published  by  the  author.  University  of  Wash- 
ington, Seattle,  Wash.  (Professor  Milliman  in  the 
first  few  pages  of  his  book  touches  the  pedagogy 
of  English.) 

173.  Monroe,    P.      Principles    of    Secondary    Education. 

Written  by  a  number  of  specialists.  Macmillan 
Co.,  1914,  New  York. 

174.  Monroe,  P.   Cyclopedia  of  Education  (Five  volumes). 

Many  of  the  greatest  contemporary  educators  are 
associated  with  Dr.  Monroe  as  departmental  editors, 
together  with  more  than  one  thousand  individual 
contributors.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1911-13. 

175.  MoNTESSORi,  M.     My  System  of  Education.     Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  64-73. 

176.  Moore,  E.  C.  What  is  Education?  (Hnn  &  Co.,  1916. 

177.  MuLFORD,  R.  J.    College  Entrance  Requirements.   See 

Outlook,  Sept.  6,  1913,  p.  49.     (The  author  main- 
tains that  too  many  studies  are  required.) 
^'*  178.  O'Shea,  M.  V.    Dynamic  Factors  in  Education.  Mac- 
millan Co.,  N.  Y.,  1906,  pp.  299. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  211 

179.  O'Shea,  M.   V.     Work   and  Play  of  Youth,  Proc. 

N.  K  A.,  1901,  pp.  513-523. 

180.  Parker,  S.  C.    Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools. 

Ginn    &    Co.,    1915.      (This   work   contains   many 
valuable  suggestions.) 

181.  Parsons  and  Shephard.    Causes  of  Leaving  Schools. 

School  and  Society,  May  27,  1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  74, 
pp.  791-793. 

\.x^l82.  Paul,  G.  F.    Human  Interest  Composition  Subjects. 
C.  W.  Bardeen,  1916,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  162  pages. 

C  _    183.  Pearson,  F.  B.     The  Vitalized  School.     Macmillan 
Co.,  1917,  Chapters  VII  and  XV. 

184.  Phelps,  "W.   L.     Teaching  in   School  and  College. 

Macmillan  Co.,  1912,  New  York.     (The  author  de- 
votes three  chapters  to  the  teaching  of  English.) 

185.  Phillips,  D.  E.     The  Elective  System  in  American 

Education.    Pedagogical  Seminary,  June,  1900,  Vol. 
Vni,  No.  2,  pp.  206-231. 

186.  Phillips,  D.  E.     The  Child  vs.  Promotion  Machin- 

ery. Journal  of  Education,  pp.  299-300.  Boston,  VoL 
LXXV,  March  14,  1912. 

187.  Potter,  M.  C.    High  School  Courses.    Proc.  N.  E.  A., 

1913,  pp.  485-488. 

188.  Preston,  J.  C,  and  Others.    Harmonizing  Vocational 

and  Cultural  Education.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1914,  pp. 
375-386. 

189.  Pylb,  W.  H.     Educational  Psychology.     Baltimore, 

Warwick  &  York,  1911.     (Discusses  many  of  the 
most  important  instincts.) 


212       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

190.  Rapeer,    L.    W.      College    Entrance    Requirements. 

School  and  Society,  April  15,  1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No. 
68,  pp.  549-556. 

191.  Rapeer,  L.  W.    College  Entrance  Requirements — ^the 

Judgment  of  Educators.  School  and  Society,  Jan. 
8,  1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  54,  pp.  45-49. 

192.  Robertson,  W.  S.     A  Brief  list  of  Books  on  the 

Social  Sciences.  Educational  Administration  and 
Supervision,  June,  1916.  VoL  11,  No.  6,  pp.  371- 
376. 

193.  Robinson,  E.  V.  D.    Reorganization  of  the  Grades 

and  the  High  School.  School  Review,  Dec,  1912, 
VoL  XX,  No.  10,  pp.  665-688. 

194.  Robinson,  J.  H.    The  New  History.    Macmillan  Co., 

N.  Y.,  1912. 

195.  Roosevelt,  T.     The  High  School  and  the  College. 

Outlook,  May,  1913,  pp.  66-68. 

196.  Roosevelt,   T.     History   as   literature.     American 

Historical  Review,  April,  1913,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp. 
473-489. 

197.  Royce,  J.     Herbert   Spencer.  Fox,  Duffield  &  Co., 

New  York,  1904.  (A  chapter  is  devoted  to  Herbert 
Spencer's  Educational  Theories,  pp.  121-185.) 

198.  Rusk,  R.  R.     Introduction  to  Experimental  Educa- 

tion.   Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1912. 

199.  Sarin,  H.    Common  Sense  Didactics.    Rand,  McNally 

&  Co.,  Chicago,  p.  342. 

200.  Sachs,   J.     The   American   Secondary   School,   and 

Some  of  Its  Problems.    Macmillan  Co.,  1912,  N.  Y. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  213 

lOL  Sanders,  F.  W.    The  Reorganization  of  Our  Schools. 
The  Pabner  Co.,  1915,  Boston. 

202.  SAin)WicK,  B.  L.    How  to  Study  and  What  to  Study^ 

D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1915,  pp.  170,  Boston. 

203.  SooTT,  C.  A.     Social  Education,  Ginn  &  Co.,  New 

York,  1908. 

204.  Scott,  C.  A.     Socialized  High  School  Curriculuma 

and  Courses  of  Study.  A  Chapter  in  Johnson  and 
Others,  The  Modem  High  School,  pp.  229-245- 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1914. 

205.  SissON,  E.  0.     The  Essentials  of  Character.    Mac- 

millan  Co.  ("A  forceful  direct  discussion  of  the 
subject  of  character  as  springing  from  native  im- 
pulses and  tendencies,  which  moral  education  must 
direct  into  the  service  of  human  ideals.") 

206.  Smith,  W.  H.    All  the  Children  of  all  the  People. 

MacmiUan  Co.,  1912,  N.  Y. 

207.  Smith,  W.  R.     The  Future  of  Economics!  and  tH« 

Social  Studies  in  the  High  School.  Kansas  School 
Magazine,  Feb.,  1912,  Vol.  I,  pp.  70-80. 

208.  Smith,  W.  R.    Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1917. 

209.  Shaw,  E.  B.     School  Hygiene.     Macmillan  Co.,  N. 

Y,  1901.     255  pages. 

210.  SHAWBarr,  M.  P.    Some  New  Problems  for  lEe  Old 

School.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  691-694. 

211.  SiDERS,  W.  R.    The  American  High  School:  Its  Rela- 

tion to  the  Schools  Below.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1912, 
pp.  161-168. 


214       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

212.  Slaughter,    J.    W.      The    Adolescent.      Macmillan 

Company,  1915. 

213.  Snedden,  D.    High  Schools,  New  and  Old.     School 

and  Society,  May  1, 1915.  Vol.  I,  No.  18,  pp.  621-626. 

214.  Snedden,  D.    What  of  Liberal  Education.    Atlantic 

Monthly,  Jan.,  1912,  Vol.  CIX,  pp.  111-117. 

215.  Snedden,  D.,  and  Dutton,  S.  T.     The  Administra- 

tion of  Public  Education  in  the  United  States.  Mac- 
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216.  Snedden,  D.     The  Pros  and  Cons  of  the  Gary  SyS^ 

tem.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  363-373. 

217.  Snedden,   D.     New  Problems  in  Secondary  Educa- 

tion. School  Review,  March,  1916,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp. 
177-187. 

218.  Snedden,  D.     The  Opportunity  of  the  Small  High 

School.  The  School  Review,  Feb.,  1912,  Vol.  XX, 
No.  2,  pp.  98-110. 

219.  Snedden,  D.     An  Educational  Quest.     School  and 

Society,  June  10, 1916,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  76,  pp.  833-843. 

220.  Snedden,   D.     High   School  Education  as  a   Social 

Enterprise.  A  chapter  in  Johnson  and  Others,  The 
Modem  High  School,  pp.  20-40.  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  N.  Y.,  1914. 

221.  Snedden,  D.  The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Educa- 

tion. A  chapter  in  Monroe's  Principles  of  Secondary 
Education.  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1915,  pp.  744-745. 

222.  Snedden,  D.    Social  Opportunities  of  New  York  City 

High  Schools.  Charities  and  the  Commons,  April 
25,  1908,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  133-138. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  215 

223.  Snedden",   D.      Teaching   of   History   in    Secondary 

Schools.  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  Nov.,  1914, 
pp.  277-282.  (See  G.  L.  Burr's  article  in  the  same 
issue,  pp.  283-287.) 

224.  Snedden,    Weeks,    Cubberlet.     Vocational  Educa- 

tion: Its  Theory,  Administration  and  Practice. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York,  1910. 

22K  Snedden,  D.    The  Character  and  Extent  of  Desirable 

t/  Flexibility  as  to  Courses  of  Instruction  and  Training 

for  Youths  of  12  to  14  years  of  Age.    Educational 

Administration  and  Supervision,  April,  1916,  Vol. 

n,  pp.  219-234. 

226.  Spaulding,  F.  E.    Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance. 

Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  331-335. 

227.  Spencer,    H.      Education — Intellectual,    Moral    and 

Physical.    D.  Appleton  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1910. 

228.  Staples,  C.  L.     A  Critique  of  High  School  Latin. 

Ped.  Sem.,  Dec,  1912,  Vol.  XIX,  No.  4,  pp.  492-509. 

229.  Starr,  L.     The  Adolescent  Period.     P.  BlaMston's 

Sons  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1915. 

230.  Stout,  J.  E.     The  High  School:  Its  Function,  Or- 

ganization and  Administration.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
Boston,  1914.  (See  Chapter  XI,  The  Social  Studies, 
and  Chapter  XIII,  EngUsh.) 

231.  Strachan,  G.  C.    Future  Outlook  and  Possibilities  of 

Elementary  Education.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp. 
616. 

232.  Strayer,  G.  D.     A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching 

Process.  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1911.  (An  excel- 
lent work.) 


216       EDUCATION  DmtlNG  ADOLESCENCE 

233.  Strong,  F.,  and  Others.    Economy  of  Time  in  Educa- 

tion.   Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1914,  pp.  383-404. 

234.  SuzzALLO,  Henry.    Educational  Methods,  Cyclopedia 

of  Education.    Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1911. 

235.  SuzzALLO,  Heitrt,  and  Burnham,  W.  H.    History 

of  Education  as  a  Professional  Subject.  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  1908. 

236.  SuzzALLO,   Henry.      Introductons    to    the    Riverside 

Educational  Monographs.  (These  monographs  are 
edited  by  Dr.  Suzzallo.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New 
York.) 

237.  Talkinqton,  H.  L.    How  to  Study  and  Teach  His- 

tory and  Civics  in  the  Grades.  Public  School  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 

238.  Tanner,  A.  E.    The  Child  (Revised  Edition)  Rand, 

McNally  &  Co.,  New  York. 

239.  Taylor,  J.  S.    A  Handbook  of  Vocational  Education. 

Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1914. 

240.  Teacher's  College  Record.    History  Course  in  the 

Horace  Mann  High  School,  March,  1906,  Vol.  VII, 
pp.  51-67.    Macmillan  Co.     (Agents.) 

y./  241.  Terman,  L.  M.     The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1914. 

242.  Thomas,   C.    S.     How   to    Teach   English   Classics. 

("Principles  in  Teaching  English"  with  questions 
on  English  classics.)  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1910, 
132  pages. 

243.  Thompson,  F.  V.     Vocational  Guidance  in  Boston. 

School  Review,  Feb.,  1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  105-112, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  217 

244.  Thorndikb,  E.  L.     Individuality.     Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  1911,  New  York. 

245.  Thorndike,  E.  L.    Education— A  First  Book.    Mac- 

miUan  Co.,  1912,  New  York. 

246.  TflORNDiKE,    E.    L.      Elimination    of    Pupils    from 

School.  Washington  Gov't.  Print.  Office,  1908,  pp. 
63.    U.  S.  Bur.  of  Educ.  Bulletin  No.  4,  1907. 

247.  Tract,  F.  and  Sinclair,  S.  B.    Introductory  Educa- 

tional Psychology.  Macmillan  Co.,  of  Canada, 
Toronto,  1912. 

248.  Trton,  R.  M.     The  Organization  of  United  States 

History  for  Teaching  Purposes  in  Grades  Seven  and 
Eight.  Elem.  School  Journal,  Jan.,  1916,  Vol.  XVI, 
pp.  247-256. 

249.  Ward,  E.  J.    The  Social  Center.    D.  Appleton  &  Co., 

1913. 

250.  Watland,  J.  W.    How  to  Teach  American  History. 

Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1914. 

251.  West,  H.  S.     A  Junior  High  School.     School  Re- 

view, Feb.,  1916,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  142-151. 

m  Whititey,  W.  T.  The  Socialized  Recitation.  A.  S. 
Barnes  Co.,  New  York  City. 

253.  Wheeler,  G.  The  Six  Year  High  School.  School 
Review,  April,  1913. 

854.  Whipple,  G.  M.  How  to  Study  Effectively.  Public 
School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 

255.  Whipple,  G.  M.  Psychology  and  Hygiene  of 
Adolescence.  A  chapter  in  Paul  Monroe's  Prin- 
ciples of  Secondary  Education,  pp.  246-312.  Mac- 
millan Co.,  1914. 


218       EDUCATION  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

266.  Wilson,  G.  M.,  and  H.  B.    The  Motivation  of  School 
Work.      Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1916,  Boston. 

257.  Wilson,  H.  B.     Report  of  Committee  on  Economy 

of  Time  in  Elementary  Education.    Proc.  N,  E.  A., 
1915,  pp.  402-410. 

258.  Wilson,    Woodrow.      Mere    Literature    and    Other 

Essays,  1896,  pp.  161-186.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1900. 

259.  Wheatley,    W.    A.      Vocational    Information    for 

Pupils  in   a   Small  City.     School  Review,  March, 
1915,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  175-180. 

260.  WiNSHiP,   A.   E.     Standards— Wise   and   Otherwise. 

Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1915,  pp.  528-533. 

261.  ZiMMERS,  J.  P.     Teaching  Boys  and  Girls  How  to 

Study.    Parker  Educational  Co.,  Madison,  Wiscon- 
sin, 1918. 


INDEX 


Adolescent  psychology,  3-5,  42,  49. 
Advantages  of  the  Socialized  Recitation,  180-189. 
Advantages  of  the  Six  and  Six  Plan  of  Organization,  28-34, 
Aims  of  the  high  school,  14-18. 
Aims  of  the  SociaUzed  Recitation,  153-154. 
Angell,  J.  R.,  author  of  an  article  in  the  School  Review, 
Sept.,  1911,  40  n.,  45,  46. 

Berkeley,  Calif.,  high  school,  19-28. 

Boise,  Idaho,  high  school  course,  44. 

Bolton,  F.  E.,  Reference  to  his  Principles  of  Education  and 

his  views  on  the  Doctrine  of  Interest  in  Education, 

41  n. 
Boston,  "General  High  School  Course,"  44,  61,  62. 
Bunker,  F.  F.,  22,  27. 
Burnham,  W.  H.,  15  n.,  64,  70  n. 
Butler,  N.  M.,  quoted  66,  86  n.,  103. 

Changes  Proposed  in  Secondary  Education,  59-78. 
Chicago  University  Entrance  Requirements,  39  n.,  45,  46. 
Civics,  sociology,  and  economics,  17,  37,  58,  62,  63,  65-69, 

79,  93. 
College  entrance  requirements,  39  n.,  40,  43,  45,  46,  51,  52. 
College  professors  and  the  high  school  situation,  6-9. 
Conduct  of  classes  in  history,  154-158. 
Constants  and  Electives  in  the  High  School,  57-78. 
Cooper,  F.  B.,  quoted,  182,  183. 
Course  in  Elementary  Sociology  in  High  School,  79  n. 

219 


220  INDEX 

Criticism  of  the  Junior  High  School  of  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia, 25. 
"Cultivated  Man,"  Dr.  EUot's  definition,  72-74. 
Cultural  subjects  and  vocational  instruction,  61-65. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  21. 

Diversity  of  college  entrance  requirements,  39  n.,  40,  43,  45, 
46,  51,  52. 

Education  for  Citizenship,  59-78. 

Educators  on  Election  in  Education,  39-58. 

Elective  System  in  High  School,  39-58,  60,  63,  78. 

Elementary  education,  20-23. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  quoted,  42,  43,  56,  72-74,  102,  106,  114-115. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  on  the  safest  guides  to  a  wise  choice  of 

studies,  42. 
BngUsh,  23  n.,  37,  40,  58,  62,  63,  69,  98-123. 
Example  of  a  Project  in  Modern  History,  165-172. 
Experiment  in  teaching  a  high  school  course  in  Elementary 

Sociology,  79  n. 

Fitting  for  college  versus  fitting  for  life,  5-7. 

FlexibiUty  of  the  course,  61-63. 

Foreign  languages,  16,  17. 

Formal  Discipline,  47,  48. 

Foster,  W.  T.,  on  the  elective  system,  50-55. 

"General  Course"  of  the  Seattle  High  Schools,  45,  61,  62. 

Hall's,  G.  S.,  Views,  1-14,  18,  29,  30,  32-34,  47,  48,  80-93, 

98-101,  109-123. 
High  School,  Berkeley,  California,  19-28. 
History,  17,  23  n.,  24.  35,  37,  58,  62,  63,  124-138. 

1.  Value  of  History,  124-138. 

2.  Method  in  History,  138-153. 

3.  History  Recitation  Socialized,  153-189. 

(1).  The  Aims  of  the  Plan,  153-154. 

(2).  How  Classes  are  Conducted,  154-158. 


INDEX  221 

(3).  Problem   Method   and   Socialized  Bedtatloii, 

158-165. 
(4).  Example  of   a   Project  In  Modem   History, 

165-172. 
(5).  Socialized  Recitation  from  Student's  Stand- 
point, 172-179. 
(6).  What  are  the  Advantages  of  the  Socialized 
BecitaUon,  180-189. 
Holding  students  in  high  school,  25-28. 
Holland,  E.  O.,  quoted  48  n.,  49  n. 
Hulme,  E.  M.,  165,  167  n. 

Individuality  recognized,  6-11,  41. 
Ideal  high  school  course,  45,  46,  61,  62. 
Initiative  and  Referendum,  67. 

Judd,  G.  H.,  author  of  an  article  on  Education,  J^.,  1912, 

39  n. 
Jordan,  D.  S.,  quoted,  40,  46,  55,  57. 
Junior  High  School  Curriculum,  24,  35,  36w 

Latin  in  high  school,  100-108. 
Leavitt,  F.  M.,  22,  27  n. 

Mann,  G.  R.,  author  of  an  article  In  the  Educational  B^ 

view,  Sept.,  1911,  39  n. 
Meany,  E.  S.,  quoted,  140. 
Method  in  History,  138-153. 

N.  R  A.,  Committee  on  secondary  education,  49,  64, 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  48. 

Palmer,  F.  H.,  quoted,  181,  182. 
Part-time  schools,  60. 
Percentage  of  those  who  leave  school,  27. 
Personal  culture,  16,  71-74. 


222  INDEX 

Physical  well-being,  14. 

Principle  of  Election  in  Education,  39-58. 

Problem  Method  and  Socialized  Recitation,  158-172. 

Proposed  Junior  High  School  Program,  35-36. 

Proposed  Senior  High  School  Program,  37,  38. 

Psychology  of  Adolescence,  3-5,  42,  49. 

Recitation  SociaUzed,  153-189. 

Recognition  of  individual  differences  by  the  1911  Committee 

of  Nine  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  41. 
Reed  College  Entrance  Requirements,  39. 
Reorganization  of  the  high  school,  19-38,  59-78. 
Required  Studies  in  the  High  School,  23,  37,  eO,  62,  70. 

77,  78. 

Seattle  High  School  Courses,  45,  61,  62. 

Senior  High  School  Program,  37,  38. 

Six  year  high  school  curricula,  19-38. 

Snedden,  David,  16  n.,  48  n.,  117-118. 

Social  efficiency,  17,  71-74. 

Social  Problems,  69,  74,  79. 

Socialized  Recitation,  153-189. 

Spencer,  H.,  and  G.  Stanley  Hall,  quoted,  47,  48. 

Stanford  University  Entrance  Requirements,  40,  45. 

State  College  of  Washington  Entrance  Requirements,  39  n. 

Students'  Opinion  of  the  Socialized  Recitation,  172-179. 

Suzzallo,  Henry,   Editor  of  Riverside  Educational  Mono- 

,.     graphSt  16  n.,  41,  42  n. 

Teachers*  duty,  60. 

Training  for  Citizenship,  59-78. 

University  of  Chicago  Entrance  Requirements,  39  n.,  45,  46. 

Value  of  History,  138-153. 
Vocational  guidance,  15,  75-78. 


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